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Anti-doping efforts aim to reduce the prevalence of doping through a combination of education, deterrence, and detection. Detection of doping practices, for example through testing and/or investigations, aims both to catch committed dopers and deter potential dopers. To date, little empirical evidence is available examining the ability of detection strategies to deter athletes from doping. Here, trends in adverse analytical findings (AAFs) for EPO or other EPO-Receptor Agonists (ERAs) were examined over an 8-year period in order to assess the impact of ERA testing and detection on athlete behavior. It was observed that the majority (62.8%) of ERA AAFs occur on samples collected on the day of a competition. Evidence is also presented that the largest fraction of ERA AAFs occurs on the first sample ever taken from an athlete (43.2%), and that the ERA AAF rates decline steadily as athletes continue to be tested. These findings provide evidence of a deterrent effect of testing on ERA use in sport., (© 2024 The Author(s). Drug Testing and Analysis published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Confounding factors including exercise and environments challenge the interpretation of individual Athlete Biological Passports (ABPs). This study aimed to investigate the natural variability of hematological ABP parameters over 1 year in elite athletes compared with healthy control subjects and the validity of a multiparametric model estimating plasma volume (PV) shifts to correct individual ABP thresholds. Blood samples were collected monthly with full blood counts performed by flow cytometry (Sysmex XN analyzers) in 20 elite xc-skiers (ELITE) and 20 moderately trained controls. Individual ABP profiles were generated through Anti-Doping Administration & Management System Training, a standalone version of the ABP's adaptive model developed by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Additionally, eight serum parameters were computed as volume-sensitive biomarkers to run a multiparametric model to estimate PV. Variability in ELITE compared with controls was significantly higher for the Abnormal Blood Profile Scores (P = 0.003). Among 12 Atypical Passport Findings (ATPF) initially reported, six could be removed after correction of PV shifts with the multiparametric modeling. However, several ATPF were additionally generated (n = 19). Our study outlines a larger intraindividual variability in elite athletes, likely explained by more frequent exposure to extrinsic factors altering hematological biomarkers. PV correction for individual ABP thresholds allowed to explain most of the atypical findings while generating multiple new ATPF occurrences in the elite population. Overall, accounting for PV shifts in elite athletes was shown to be paramount in this study outlining the opportunity to consider PV variations with novel approaches when interpreting individual ABP profiles., (© 2024 The Authors. Drug Testing and Analysis published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: When using biological variation (BV) data, BV estimates need to be robust and representative. High-endurance athletes represent a population under special physiological conditions, which could influence BV estimates. Our study aimed to estimate BV in athletes for metabolism and growth-related biomarkers involved in the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP), by 2 different statistical models., Methods: Thirty triathletes were sampled monthly for 11 months. The samples were analyzed for human growth hormone (hGH), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3), insulin, and N-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen (P-III-NP) by immunoassay. Bayesian and ANOVA methods were applied to estimate within-subject (CVI) and between-subject BV., Results: CVI estimates ranged from 7.8% for IGFBP-3 to 27.0% for insulin, when derived by the Bayesian method. The 2 models gave similar results, except for P-III-NP. Data were heterogeneously distributed for P-III-NP for the overall population and in females for IGF-1 and IGFBP-3. BV components were not estimated for hGH due to lack of steady state. The index of individuality was below 0.6 for all measurands, except for insulin., Conclusions: In an athlete population, to apply a common CVI for insulin would be appropriate, but for IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 gender-specific estimates should be applied. P-III-NP data were heterogeneously distributed and using a mean CVI may not be representative for the population. The high degree of individuality for IGF-1, IGFBP-3, and P-III-NP makes them good candidates to be interpreted through reference change values and the ABP., (© Association for Diagnostics & Laboratory Medicine 2024. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Context: Detection of endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids (EAAS), like testosterone (T), as doping agents has been improved with the launch of the Steroidal Module of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) in urine samples., Objective: To target doping practices with EAAS, particularly in individuals with low level of biomarkers excreted in urine, by including new target compounds measured in blood., Design: T and T/androstenedione (T/A4) distributions were obtained from 4 years of anti-doping data and applied as priors to analyze individual profiles from 2 T administration studies in female and male subjects., Setting: Anti-doping laboratory. Elite athletes (n = 823) and male and female clinical trials subjects (n = 19 and 14, respectively)., Intervention(s): Two open-label administration studies were carried out. One involved a control phase period followed by patch and then oral T administration in male volunteers and the other followed female volunteers during 3 menstrual cycles with 28 days of daily transdermal T application during the second month., Main Outcome Measure(s): Serum samples were analyzed for T and A4 and the performance of a longitudinal ABP-based approach was evaluated for T and T/A4., Results: An ABP-based approach set at a 99% specificity flagged all female subjects during the transdermal T application period and 44% of subjects 3 days after the treatment. T showed the best sensitivity (74%) in response to transdermal T application in males., Conclusions: Inclusion of T and T/A4 as markers in the Steroidal Module can improve the performance of the ABP to identify T transdermal application, particularly in females., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Endocrine Society. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Hematological parameters have many applications in athletes, from monitoring health to uncovering blood doping. This study aimed to deliver biological variation (BV) estimates for 9 hematological parameters by a Biological Variation Data Critical Appraisal Checklist (BIVAC) design in a population of recreational endurance athletes and to assess the effect of self-reported exercise and health-related variables on BV., Methods: Samples were drawn from 30 triathletes monthly for 11 months and measured in duplicate for hematological measurands on an Advia 2120 analyzer (Siemens Healthineers). After outlier and homogeneity analysis, within-subject (CVI) and between-subject (CVG) BV estimates were delivered (CV-ANOVA and log-ANOVA, respectively) and a linear mixed model was applied to analyze the effect of exercise and other related variables on the BV estimates., Results: CVI estimates ranged from 1.3% (95%CI, 1.2-1.4) for mean corpuscular volume to 23.8% (95%CI, 21.6-26.3) for reticulocytes. Sex differences were observed for platelets and OFF-score. The CVI estimates were higher than those reported for the general population based on meta-analysis of eligible studies in the European Biological Variation Database, but 95%CI overlapped, except for reticulocytes, 23.9% (95%CI, 21.6-26.5) and 9.7% (95%CI, 6.4-11.0), respectively. Factors related to exercise and athletes' state of health did not appear to influence the BV estimates., Conclusions: This is the first BIVAC-compliant study delivering BV estimates that can be applied to athlete populations performing high-level aerobic exercise. CVI estimates of most parameters were similar to the general population and were not influenced by exercise or athletes' state of health., (© American Association for Clinical Chemistry 2023. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The haematological module of the athlete biological passport (ABP) monitors longitudinal haematological variations that could be indicative of blood manipulation. This study applied a multi-parametric model previously validated in elite cyclists to compare inferred and actual PV variations, whereas the potential influence of the oral contraceptive pill (OCP) cycle on the ABP blood biomarkers and plasma volume (PV) in 14 physically active women taking OCPs was also investigated. Blood and serum samples were collected each week for 8 weeks, and the ABP haematological variables were determined according to the World Anti-Doping Agency guidelines. Transferrin (sTFN), ferritin (FERR), albumin (ALB), calcium (Ca), creatinine (CRE), total protein (TP) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) were additionally computed as 'volume-sensitive' variables in a multivariate analysis to determine individual estimations of PV variations. Actual PV variations were indirectly measured using a validated carbon monoxide rebreathing method. We hypothesised ABP markers to be stable during a standard OCP cycle and estimated PV variations similar to measured PV variations. Measured PV variations were in good agreement with the predictions and allowed to explain an atypical passport finding (ATPF). The ABP biomarkers, Hbmass and PV were stable over 8 weeks. Significant differences occurred only between Week 7 and Week 1, with lower levels of haemoglobin concentration ([Hb]), haematocrit (HCT) and red blood cell count (RBC)(-4.4%, p < 0.01; -5.1%, p < 0.01; -5.2%, p < 0.01) and higher levels of PV at week 7 (+9%, p = 0.05). We thus concluded that estimating PV variations may help interpret individual ABP haematological profiles in women., (© 2022 The Authors. Drug Testing and Analysis published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Context: Because of its anabolic and lipolytic properties, growth hormone (GH) use is prohibited in sport. Two methods based on population-derived decision limits are currently used to detect human GH (hGH) abuse: the hGH Biomarkers Test and the Isoforms Differential Immunoassay., Objective: We tested the hypothesis that longitudinal profiling of hGH biomarkers through application of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) has the potential to flag hGH abuse., Methods: Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and procollagen III peptide (P-III-NP) distributions were obtained from 7 years of anti-doping data in elite athletes (n = 11 455) and applied as priors to analyze individual profiles from an hGH administration study in recreational athletes (n = 35). An open-label, randomized, single-site, placebo-controlled administration study was carried out with individuals randomly assigned to 4 arms: placebo, or 3 different doses of recombinant hGH. Serum samples were analyzed for IGF-1, P-III-NP, and hGH isoforms and the performance of a longitudinal, ABP-based approach was evaluated., Results: An ABP-based approach set at a 99% specificity level flagged 20/27 individuals receiving hGH treatment, including 17/27 individuals after cessation of the treatment. ABP sensitivity ranged from 12.5% to 71.4% across the hGH concentrations tested following 7 days of treatment, peaking at 57.1% to 100% after 21 days of treatment, and was maintained between 37.5% and 71.4% for the low and high dose groups 1 week after cessation of treatment., Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that longitudinal profiling of hGH biomarkers can provide suitable performance characteristics for use in anti-doping programs., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Endocrine Society. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Introduction: The athlete biological passport monitors blood variables over time to uncover blood doping. With the phasing in of a new series of blood analyzers, the Sysmex XN series, it was necessary to examine the comparability of results with the previously employed XT/XE series. A previous comparison between XN and XT/XE series suggested a small but significant bias between the two instruments in the measurements of RET%. Here, we examined the comparability of RET% on the XN and XT/XE platform using data collected over the first year since the transition., Methods: The comparability of results obtained from XN and XT/XE instruments was assessed using three datasets: (i) 767 blood samples measured on both instrument series in 22 WADA-accredited laboratories, (ii) 27 323 samples measured on either instrument across 31 laboratories, and (iii) 119 clinical samples and 110 anti-doping samples measured on both instruments in a single laboratory., Results: Analysis of the three datasets confirms the previous observation of a bias toward higher RET% values for samples measured on Sysmex XN instruments compared with the XT/XE series. Using data across a larger number of XN instruments and a larger athlete population, the current work suggests that the bias is proportional and slightly higher than previously observed across most of the range RET% values., Conclusion: A model is proposed for the comparison of data across XN and XT/XE technologies whereby the instrument bias increases proportionally with RET% measured on Sysmex XN Series, but where the rate of increase is negatively related to IRF%., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Fluctuations in plasma volume (PV) present potential confounders within the concentration-based markers of the haematological athlete biological passport (ABP). Here, a multi-parametric approach involving a simple blood test is applied to the current ABP adaptive model in an attempt to remove the influence of PV expansion, induced by a cycling stage race. Blood samples were obtained from 29 professional cyclists (14 male, 15 female) before, during and after 4-5 consecutive days of racing. Whole blood was analysed in accordance with the World Anti-Doping Agency ABP guidelines for haemoglobin ([Hb]) concentration and platelets. Serum and plasma were analysed for transferrin, albumin, calcium, creatinine, total protein and low-density lipoprotein. PV variation (Z-scores) was estimated using a multi-parametric model (consisting of the biomarkers mentioned earlier) and compared against calculated variations in PV (measured via CO-rebreathing). Significant reductions in [Hb] and the OFF-score were observed in female cyclists after 3 and 4 days of racing, with accompanying increases in PV, which returned to baseline values 4 days post competition. Similarly, a significant increase in PV was observed in male cyclists after 3 and 5 days of racing. When individual estimations of PV variance were applied to the adaptive model, the upper and lower reference predictions for [Hb] and the OFF-score were refined such that all outliers consistent with racing-induced PV changes were removed. The PV model appears capable of reducing the influence of PV on concentration-dependent markers during competition. This is an important step towards the inclusion of the PV correction in the ABP haematological module., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

A biomarker of doping indicates the biological response to the use of a prohibited substance or method. Uncovering novel biomarkers of doping is a key objective in order to improve antidoping outcomes such as the detection of doping and changing athlete behavior toward doping practices. While the antidoping field has been successful in validating novel metabolites of prohibited substances, there has been less success in developing new biomarkers of doping. Employing the most suitable study designs and analytical approaches is critical to successfully uncovering novel biomarkers of doping with a high potential for translation into routine analysis. Here we argue that the antidoping field is well positioned for biomarker discovery and outline considerations for the development of novel biomarkers of doping.