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To better understand the impact of different screen sizes in cognitive training, study subjects performed an adaptive training task at three separate visual angles using a head-mounted display (HMD). Cognitive load was assessed using EEG and compared with task performance (accuracy and response time) for each condition. While previous studies found performance benefits corresponding to increased screen size in memory and learning tasks, our results suggest such benefits may only apply up to a visual angle of approximately 20°, after which increases in size become inversely correlated with task performance.

BACKGROUND Although the pursuit of improved cognitive function through working memory training has been the subject of decades of research, the recent growth in commercial adaptations of classic working memory tasks in the form of gamified apps warrants additional scrutiny. In particular, the emergence of virtual reality as a platform for cognitive training presents opportunities for the use of novel visual features. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to add to the body of knowledge regarding the use of game-like visual design elements by specifically examining the application of two particular visual features common to virtual reality environments: immersive, colorful backgrounds and the use of 3D depth. In addition, electroencephalography (EEG) data were collected to identify potential neural correlates of any observed changes in performance. METHODS A simple visual working memory task was presented to participants in several game-like adaptations, including the use of colorful, immersive backgrounds and 3D depth. The impact of each adaptation was separately assessed using both EEG and performance assessment outcomes and compared with an unmodified version of the task. RESULTS Results suggest that although accuracy and reaction time may be slightly affected by the introduction of such game elements, the effects were small and not statistically significant. Changes in EEG power, particularly in the beta and theta rhythms, were significant but failed to correlate with any corresponding changes in performance. Therefore, they may only reflect cognitive changes at the perceptual level. CONCLUSIONS Overall, the data suggest that the addition of these specific visual features to simple cognitive tasks does not appear to significantly affect performance or task-dependent cognitive load. CLINICALTRIAL

The use of virtual reality (VR) technology in marketing, education and training is growing rapidly. However, the body of quantitative research comparing the cognitive impact of virtual with non-virtual environments is still small. To address this, the present research invited subjects to perform the same cognitive visuospatial task using both an immersive, head-mounted display (HMD) and a tablet computer. Cortical activity was then measured and compared in both environments using EEG. The results showed significant differences in cognitive load for the HMD condition, particularly in the frontal midline theta rhythm (4–8 Hz), a range commonly associated with a variety of executive functions. Explanations for this effect include potential misattribution of distance/object size in virtual space and the relative novelty of VR itself. Further research is needed to determine the underlying parameters that impact cognitive responses to complex tasks while immersed in a virtual environment.

Head-mounted display (HMD) based cognitive training enables a number of unique visual features, including 3D depth and immersive visuals. We examine the impact of these features by measuring task performance and EEG power with a cognitive task that has been modified for use in virtual environments. Results were then compared with those obtained using an unmodified version of the task. Some modified versions of the task resulted in increased cognitive load, but the differences did not correlate with changes in task performance. The increased EEG power observed may therefore only reflect changes at the perceptual level, rather than task-contingent cognitive function. On the whole, these results suggest that adapting a standard cognitive training task to a virtual environment in order to take advantage of the inherent benefits of an HMD should pose few if any problems.

In three experiments using the conditioned suppression procedure in rats, we sought to determine the effects of preexposing the conditioned stimulus (CS) for a total of 14,400 s. For different groups, the duration of each CS trial in preexposure was 12, 120, or 720 s. Thus, Groups 12, 120, and 720 received 1200, 120, or 20 CS-preexposure trials, respectively. The duration of the CS during conditioning was 120 s in Experiment 1, 720 s in Experiment 2A, and 12 s in Experiment 2B. In each experiment there was a control group, Group 0, that received no preexposure. The pattern of retarded conditioning in the preexposed groups supported the conclusion that the most important parameter of latent inhibition is the total CS-preexposure time. Similarity in duration of the preexposed and training CS ranked a distant second. The number of preexposure trials appeared to be of little importance when total exposure time was held constant. Thus the importance usually attributed to that number may reflect only its typical confound with total exposure time.