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Previous studies have linked self-compassion to mental health, specifically anxiety, in non-clinical adolescents, suggesting that self-compassion can be a protective factor against anxiety. This study compared the overall level of self-compassion and (un)compassionate self-responding in adolescents with and without an anxiety disorder and assessed the association between self-compassion and anxiety. This cross-sectional study included adolescents (12–19 years) with an anxiety disorder (N = 23) and a reference group (N = 28). Participants completed the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) and State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Results showed that overall self-compassion and uncompassionate self-responding were significantly lower and higher in the clinical than the reference group, respectively, while compassionate self-responding did not differ between groups. In the clinical group, only uncompassionate self-responding was significantly associated with higher anxiety. In the reference group, uncompassionate self-responding showed a significant positive association with anxiety, and compassionate self-responding showed a significant negative association with anxiety. Although the results suggest that low uncompassionate self-responding may buffer against anxiety, the role of compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding remains unclear. An alternative explanation is that the uncompassionate self-responding items measure the presence of psychopathology in adolescents with an anxiety disorder. More research on the construct validity of the SCS uncompassionate self-responding scale is needed.

Many children referred to mental health services have neurodevelopmental problems, which are not always recognized because the resulting emotional and behavioral problems dominate diagnosis and treatment. BOAM (Basic needs, Order, Autonomy and Meaning) is a new diagnostic system consisting of imaginative models that explain the complexity of symptoms and underlying neuropsychological problems in a simple way. It is designed to be used in a transparent, collaborative process with families, so that family members can better understand the nature of mental health problems, thus increasing self-knowledge and mutual understanding. In this study, the feasibility of the BOAM diagnostic trajectory and subsequent treatment informed by this trajectory are evaluated clinically in 34 children who have not responded to or relapsed after treatment as usual (TAU). Parents completed questionnaires pre-test, post-test and at a 3-month follow-up. The treatment drop-out rate was 2.9%. Post-test, parents rated the BOAM trajectory positively. The questionnaires (measuring child psychopathology, attention, executive functioning, family functioning, partner relationships and parenting stress) demonstrated sensitivity to change, and therefore, seems appropriate for a future effectiveness study. A limitation was the high percentage of missing measurements both post-test (41%) and at the follow-up (41%). The BOAM diagnostic trajectory and subsequent treatment may be a feasible alternative for children who do not respond to or relapse after TAU.

Objectives We evaluated the effects of the family mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) “MYmind” for children with ADHD and their parents, and examined child and parent predictors of child outcome. Methods Using a pragmatic quasi-experimental waitlist design, children aged 7–19 years (n = 167), clinically referred with a DSM-IV ADHD diagnosis, and both their parents completed waitlist (average waiting time was 8 weeks), pre-test, post-test, 8-week, and 1-year follow-up measurements. MYmind consisted of eight weekly 1.5-h mindfulness-based group sessions for children and parallel for parents, and a follow-up session. We assessed children’s and both parents’ ADHD symptoms and other psychopathology, child executive function, parental stress, parental overreactivity, and mindful parenting. Results Multilevel analyses revealed medium-to-large effect-sized reduced child ADHD symptoms between pre- and post-test, becoming stronger at follow-ups, while no waitlist effects occurred. Parents above the ADHD threshold improved on adult ADHD symptoms with similar sized effects. Children’s and parents’ other psychopathology, child executive function, parental overreactivity, and mindful parenting improved, whereas parental stress only improved at 1-year follow-up. Child age, child gender, ADHD medication, parental ADHD, and parent participation did not predict child outcome. Parent gender however interacted with parental ADHD to predict child outcome; children of fathers (but not mothers) above the ADHD threshold improved more than children of fathers below the ADHD threshold at post-test and at 8-week follow-up. Reduced paternal ADHD from pre- to post-test mediated this effect. Conclusions Family MBI (MYmind) may reduce childhood ADHD and improve parental functioning. Fathers with ADHD symptoms appear important in helping offspring with ADHD.

ObjectiveTo assess the association between trajectories of comorbid anxiety and depressive (CAD) symptoms assessed in each pregnancy trimester and physiological birth.DesignLarge longitudinal prospective cohort study with recruitment between January 2013 and September 2014.SettingPrimary care, in the Netherlands.PopulationDutch-speaking pregnant women with gestational age at birth ≥37 weeks, and without multiple pregnancy, severe psychiatric disorder or chronic disease history.MethodsPregnancy-specific anxiety and depressive symptoms were measured prospectively in each trimester of pregnancy using the negative affect subscale of the Tilburg Pregnancy Distress Scale and Edinburgh (Postnatal) Depression Scale. Data on physiological birth were obtained from obstetric records. Multivariate growth mixture modelling was performed in MPLUS to determine longitudinal trajectories of CAD symptoms. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to examine the association between trajectories and physiological birth.Main outcome measuresTrajectories of CAD symptoms and physiological birth.ResultsSeven trajectories (classes) of CAD symptoms were identified in 1682 women and subsequently merged into three groups: group 1—persistently low levels of symptoms (reference class 1; 79.0%), group 2—intermittently high levels of symptoms (classes 3, 6 and 7; 11.2%), and group 3—persistently high levels of symptoms (classes 2, 4 and 5; 9.8%). Persistently high levels of CAD symptoms (group 3) were associated with a lower likelihood of physiological birth (odds ratio 0.67, 95% confidence interval 0.47–0.95, P = 0.027) compared with the reference group (persistently low levels of symptoms), after adjusting for confounders.ConclusionsThis study is the first showing evidence that persistently high CAD levels, assessed in each pregnancy trimester, are associated with a lower likelihood of physiological birth.

A comment on the recently published letter by Grogan and Srinivasan: The effect of antenatal depressive and anxious symptoms on the rate of physiological births.

Mindful parenting (MP) as a group-based training for parents of clinically referred children with psychopathology has shown to effectively reduce child and parent mental health problems. This study investigated the effects of MP as a “preventive” intervention for parents who experienced parental stress or problems in parenting (non-clinical setting) compared to MP as a “curative” intervention (clinical setting). Parents from a non-clinical setting (n = 98, 18% fathers) and a clinical setting (n = 87, 21% fathers) completed questionnaires about themselves, their partner relationship, and their child at waitlist (non-clinical setting only), pre-test, post-test, and 8-week follow-up. Before the intervention, the children of parents in the non-clinical setting, as expected, showed higher well-being and lower behavior problems, but parental stress levels, parental overreactivity, mindful parenting, partner relationship, and parental well-being were no different in the clinical and preventive group pre-intervention. No improvement was observed at waitlist, except for parental well-being, while improvement on parent and child functioning measures did occur after MP. No differences in MP effects in both settings were found in improved parental functioning (parental stress, overreactivity, mindful parenting, partner relationship, and well-being [small to medium effect size improvements]) and child functioning (well-being and behavior problems, small effect size improvements). Improvements in child functioning were associated with improved mindful parenting. Results suggest that MP training may be an effective intervention not only for families of children referred to mental health care because of child mental disorders but also for parents who experience parental stress or parenting problems as it is.

ObjectivesMindful parenting (MP) interventions show promising results, but they mostly target parents (of children) with mental health problems. This study examined an online MP intervention for mothers with toddlers in a population-based sample. Aims were to assess acceptability and effectiveness of the intervention for mothers with and without parental stress, and examine their predetermined personal goals.MethodsThe study included 157 mothers with toddlers from the general population of whom 73 reported parental stress. The mothers participated in an 8-week online MP training. Questionnaires were completed at waitlist, pretest, posttest, and follow-up.ResultsMothers rated the training positively, although only 23.1% completed the training. Personal goals were analyzed qualitatively, establishing four different themes: attention, well-being, patience, and balance. Significant improvements in personal goals posttest and follow-up were found (large and very large effect size, respectively). We found no significant improvements from waitlist to pretest for all outcome variables, except personal goals (medium effect size). Mixed-linear model analyses showed significant improvements posttest and follow-up as compared to pretest regarding Self-compassion, Parental over-reactivity and Symptoms of anxiety and depression (small to medium effect sizes). There was an effect at posttest for Parenting problems, and for Parental role restriction at follow-up (small effect sizes). Levels of parental stress and theme of personal goal did not influence the effectiveness of the intervention.ConclusionsThe current study provides initial evidence that an online MP training could be an easily accessible, inexpensive, and valuable intervention for parents without an indication for a therapist-assisted intervention.Trial RegistrationDutch Trial Register (NTR7401)

Objectives Parental stress has been associated with adverse child outcomes and maternal functioning. Yet, maternal factors during pregnancy that can potentially protect against later parental stress, such as mindfulness, have not been studied. Therefore, we aimed to address the possible associations between prenatal mindfulness and levels of parental stress in mothers raising toddlers. Methods Women in the current study (n = 165) were prospectively followed from pregnancy until 3 years after childbirth, as part of a longitudinal population based cohort (HAPPY study). At 22 weeks of pregnancy, women completed the Three Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire–Short Form (TFMQ-SF) to assess facets of mindfulness (acting with awareness, non-judging, and non-reacting). Women completed the Parenting Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) 3 years after childbirth, reporting on three components of parental stress: (1) parent-child relationship problems, (2) parenting problems, and (3) role restriction. Results Results of multiple linear regression analyses showed that the acting with awareness facet of mindfulness during pregnancy was a significant predictor of fewer parent-child relationship problems and parenting problems, even when adjusted for prenatal and maternal distress and child behavior problems. Higher levels of non-reacting during pregnancy were also significantly associated with fewer parenting problems in mothers raising toddlers. Conclusions The current study emphasizes that mindfulness during pregnancy may be a protective factor for later parental stress. More research is needed to confirm these findings and to evaluate the possible benefit of a mindfulness intervention training during pregnancy on parenting and child outcomes.

Objective: Breastfeeding has been associated with many health benefits for both infant and mother. Trait mindfulness during pregnancy may have a beneficial impact on breastfeeding intention. The current study aimed to examine whether trait mindfulness during pregnancy was associated with antenatal breastfeeding intention. Design, setting and participants: The current study is part of a large prospective population-based cohort study among pregnant women in the south of the Netherlands. Measurements: A subsample of participants completed the Three Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form at 22 weeks of pregnancy and a question on their breastfeeding intention at 32 weeks of pregnancy (N=790). Moreover, the Edinburgh Depression Scale and Tilburg Pregnancy Distress scale were completed at 32 weeks of pregnancy to assess levels of distress. Findings: Univariate analyses showed that women with breastfeeding intention during pregnancy had significantly higher scores on the mindfulness facet non-reacting (pKey conclusions: The mindfulness facet non-reacting was found to be associated with antenatal breastfeeding intention. More research is needed to confirm our results, since the current study is one of the first assessing the possible relation of trait mindfulness during pregnancy and breastfeeding intention. Implications for practice: Mindfulness-based programs during pregnancy could be helpful in improving non-reacting in pregnant women, which may enhance breastfeeding intention and ultimately the initiation of breastfeeding.

This study examined the effectiveness of Mindful with your toddler, a 9-week mindful parenting group training for mother–toddler dyads experiencing (co-)regulation difficulties. Eighteen clinically referred mothers and toddlers (18–48 months) with (co-)regulation problems participated in groups, each comprising three to six dyads. At waitlist, pretest, and post-test, mothers completed questionnaires on parenting (overreactivity, parental stress, sense of incompetence), psychopathology (internalizing and externalizing), partner relationship, mindful parenting (listening with full attention, compassion for child, non-judgmental acceptance of parental functioning), mindfulness (acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience, non-reactivity), self-compassion, and child outcomes (psychopathology and dysregulation) and mother–toddler freeplay observations were conducted, and coded for maternal sensitivity and acceptance. Questionnaires were completed again at 2-month and 8-month follow-up. No significant differences occurred between waitlist and pretest, except for a deterioration in listening with full attention and an improvement in compassion for child. Between pretest and post-test, observed maternal sensitivity and acceptance improved (medium effect sizes). Child psychopathology, maternal listening with full attention, acting with awareness, non-reactivity, and self-compassion also improved (medium effect sizes). Effects were stable or further improved during follow-up (medium/large effect sizes). Improvement in child dysregulation, maternal internalizing psychopathology, maternal stress, sense of parental incompetence, non-judgmental acceptance of parental functioning, and non-judging of inner experience was only seen at 2- and 8-month follow-up (medium/large effect sizes). No changes in maternal externalizing psychopathology, overreactivity, compassion for child, and partner relationship occurred. Mindful with your toddler is a promising intervention for mothers with toddlers with (co-)regulation problems.

The COVID-19 pandemic affects the mental health status of perinatal women, which makes it important to gain insight into and to effectively measure specific stressors of the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, we aimed to develop a COVID-19 Perinatal Perception Questionnaire (COVID19-PPQ). In-depth interviews were conducted during the first national lockdown period with pregnant women, new mothers and perinatal healthcare professionals, resulting in (a) a 27-item pregnancy and (b) a 21-item postpartum scale. Explorative factor analyses (EFA) in sample Ia (N = 154) and Ib (N = 90), and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) in sample IIa (N = 113) and IIb (N = 81) were conducted to test the psychometric properties of both scales. For the pregnancy scale, EFA suggested a three-factor solution (risk of infection, contact, future), which was confirmed by CFA and resulted in a final nine-item scale. For the postpartum scale, a three-factor solution (first postpartum week, COVID-19 measures, fear for infection) was suggested by EFA and confirmed by CFA, resulting in a final ten-item scale. Symptoms of depression and pregnancy-specific distress were significantly correlated with the pregnancy (sub)scale(s), while symptoms of postpartum depression and anxiety showed significant correlations with the COVID-19 measures and fear for infection subscale. The COVID19-PPQ seems to be a valid instrument for assessment of perinatal COVID-19-related stress perception, showing adequate psychometric properties for both the pregnancy and postpartum scale. Future research should examine the use of this instrument in clinical practice during new episodes of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Background Receiving epidural analgesia during labor can possibly have negative consequences for mother and child. Yet, the use of epidural analgesia rapidly increased in the Netherlands over the last decade. Since antenatal plans for labor pain relief have been related to epidural analgesia use during labor, the aim of the current study was to develop a Labor Pain Relief Attitude Questionnaire for pregnant women (LPRAQ-p). Methods Three focus group interviews were conducted with pregnant women, new mothers and caregivers and 13 candidate items were derived. Psychometric properties were tested with explorative factor analysis in sample I (N = 429) and a subsequent confirmatory factor analysis in a different sample II (N = 432). Results The explorative factor analysis suggested a two-factor seven-item solution: a ‘women’s perception’ and ‘social environment’ subscale. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed an excellent six-item model fit with appropriate internal consistency. Higher scores on the six-item LPRAQ-p indicate greater willingness for request of pain relief medication during labor. Two-tailed t-tests showed that women with elevated levels of depression and pregnancy-specific distress symptoms, nulliparous women and multiparous women with complications during a previous delivery had greater willingness for request of pain relief medication during labor. Linear regression showed that the most important association with higher scores on the LPRAQ-p were high pregnancy-specific distress symptoms. Conclusions This study showed the LPRAQ-p to be a valid instrument to evaluate attitude towards labor pain relief in pregnant women. High scores on this questionnaire are associated with high levels of pregnancy-specific distress symptoms.

Women’s subjective childbirth experience is a risk factor for postpartum depression and childbirth-related posttraumatic stress symptoms. Subjective childbirth experience is influenced not only by characteristics of the childbirth itself but also by maternal characteristics. A maternal characteristic that may be associated with a more positive childbirth experience is trait mindfulness. The current study aimed to assess this association and to assess whether trait mindfulness during pregnancy had a moderating role in the possible association between non-spontaneous delivery and perception of childbirth. A subsample of 486 women, participating in a longitudinal prospective cohort study (Holistic Approach to Pregnancy and the first Postpartum Year study), completed the Three Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form at 22 weeks of pregnancy. Women completed the Childbirth Perception Scale and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale between 7 and 21 days postpartum. The mindfulness facets acting with awareness and non-reacting were significantly associated with a more positive perception of childbirth, after adjusting for covariates. Moderation analyses showed a significant interaction between acting with awareness and non-spontaneous delivery and non-judging and non-spontaneous delivery. Non-spontaneous delivery was associated with a more negative perception of childbirth for low/medium scores of acting with awareness and non-judging, but not for high scores on these mindfulness facets. Trait mindfulness during pregnancy may enhance a positive perception of childbirth. Because this is among the first studies examining the association between maternal dispositional mindfulness and perception of childbirth, future research is needed to confirm the results of the current study.

Editorial on the Research TopicApplication of the Third Generation of Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches to Parenting

Emerging evidence supports the positive effects of mindful parenting as a clinical intervention in the context of child psychopathology; however, previous studies have not considered the specific parenting predictors of improvements in child outcomes. Parents accessing a child and youth secondary mental health care center participated in an 8-week mindful parenting training (n = 89). The effects of the mindful parenting training were assessed on parent-reported child’s psychopathology, parents’ own psychopathology, mindfulness, and parenting factors from pre- to post-intervention, 8-week and 1-year follow-up. Multi-level analyses indicated immediate and delayed improvements in most child and parent outcomes. Changes in experiential avoidance in parenting partially predicted improvements in child internalizing problems. In combination with mindful parenting, experiential avoidance in parenting fully accounted for improvements in child attention problems. Changes in parental over-reactivity fully accounted for improvements in child externalizing problems. The mindful parenting training successfully improved the targeted (mindful) parenting factors, which in turn predicted improvements across different child outcomes.

Preterm born children have more behaviour problems than term born children. Perinatal risks, current child functioning, sociodemographic characteristics, parental psychological distress and parental perceptions of child vulnerability (PCV) have been shown to be risk factors for behaviour problems. However, the role of maternal and paternal PCV is unclear, as these have not been investigated as a risk factor for behaviour problems, with all other risk factors taken into account. Aim of this study is to investigate whether maternal and paternal PCV are independent risk factors for behaviour problems in very preterm (VP) and term born children. The present study is a single centre prospective cohort study. Preterm children (n = 104), born at

Many mothers experience difficulties after the birth of a baby. Mindful parenting may have benefits for mothers and babies, because it can help mothers regulate stress, and be more attentive towards themselves and their babies, which may have positive effects on their responsivity. This study examined the effectiveness of Mindful with your baby, an 8-week mindful parenting group training for mothers with their babies. The presence of the babies provides on-the-spot practicing opportunities and facilitates generalization of what is learned. Forty-four mothers with their babies (0–18 months), who were referred to a mental health clinic because of elevated stress or mental health problems of the mother, infant (regulation) problems, or mother-infant interaction problems, participated in 10 groups, each comprising of three to six mother-baby dyads. Questionnaires were administered at pretest, posttest, 8-week follow-up, and 1-year follow-up. Dropout rate was 7%. At posttest, 8-week follow-up, and 1-year follow-up, a significant improvement was seen in mindfulness, self-compassion, mindful parenting, (medium to large effects), as well as in well-being, psychopathology, parental confidence, responsivity, and hostility (small to large effects). Parental stress and parental affection only improved at the first and second follow-ups, respectively (small to medium effects), and maternal attention and rejection did not change. The infants improved in their positive affectivity (medium effect) but not in other aspects of their temperament. Mindful with your baby is a promising intervention for mothers with babies who are referred to mental health care because of elevated stress or mental health problems, infant (regulation) problems, or mother-infant interaction problems.

Minor neurological dysfunction (MND) is present in one quarter to one third of children born very preterm (VP). The more severe form, complex (c)-MND has been associated with learning disabilities, behavioural and motor problems. To study the association between c-MND and neurocognitive and motor disabilities at age five in VP children without CP. Ninety-four children born with gestational age

1000 g, and term children (n = 84) were assessed at corrected age of 5 using a mother–child interaction observation. Disabilities were assessed using an intelligence test, behaviour questionnaires for parents and teachers, and motor and neurological examinations. Results: Mothers of preterm-born children were less supportive of and more interfering with their children’s autonomy than mothers of term-born children. This difference was only partly explained by sociodemographic factors. Dyads showed a lower quality of mother–child interaction if children had a severe disability, especially when mothers had a lower level of education. Conclusion: Five years after birth, mother–child interaction of very premature children and their mothers compared unfavourably with term children and their mothers. Mothers with sociodemographic disadvantages, raising a preterm child with severe disabilities, struggle most with giving adequate sensitive support for the autonomy development of their child. Focused specialized support for these at risk groups is warranted.

Objectives To describe the prevalence and co-occurrence of disabilities and their association with parental education in preterm children and term control subjects. Study design In a prospective study, preterm children (n = 104), born at

Via een semi-gestructureerd interview is het inzicht over emotionele expressie-regels (‘display rules’) bekeken bij 25 acht- tot vijftienjarige hoogfunctionerende kinderen met autisme. Deze kinderen bleken minder vaak specifieke situaties te benoemen dan kinderen uit een controlegroep. Hun techniek voor emotieverhulling was minder geavanceerd: relatief vaker gebruikten zij substitutie (tonen van een andere emotie) dan neutralisatie. Verder gaven zij minder vaak prosociale redenen, maar wel even vaak zelfbeschermende redenen ten opzichte van de controlegroep. Deze uitkomsten suggereren dat ‘display rules’ door hoogfunctionerende kinderen met autisme vaker worden gebruikt om een direct eigenbelang te beschermen dan om goede sociale relaties te onderhouden.

Aim To elucidate the relation between motor impairment and other developmental deficits in very preterm-born children without disabling cerebral palsy and term-born comparison children at 5 years of (corrected) age. Method In a prospective cohort study, 165 children (81 very preterm-born and 84 term-born) were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children - 2nd edition, Touwen's neurological examination, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, processing speed and visuomotor coordination tasks of the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Results Motor impairment (≤15th centile) occurred in 32% of the very preterm-born children compared with 11% of their term-born peers (p=0.001). Of the very preterm-born children with motor impairment, 58% had complex minor neurological dysfunctions, 54% had low IQ, 69% had slow processing speed, 58% had visuomotor coordination problems, and 27%, 50%, and 46% had conduct, emotional, and hyperactivity problems respectively. Neurological outcome (odds ratio [OR]=41.7, 95% confidence intervals [CI] 7.5–232.5) and Full-scale IQ (OR=7.3, 95% CI 1.9–27.3) were significantly and independently associated with motor impairment. Processing speed (OR=4.6, 95% CI 1.8–11.6) and attention (OR=3.2, 95% CI 1.3–7.9) were additional variables associated with impaired manual dexterity. These four developmental deficits mediated the relation between preterm birth and motor impairment. Interpretation Complex minor neurological dysfunctions, low IQ, slow processing speed, and hyperactivity/inattention should be taken into account when very preterm-born children are referred for motor impairment.

Aim This study aimed to compare a broad array of neurocognitive functions (processing speed, aspects of attention, executive functioning, visual–motor coordination, and both face and emotion recognition) in very preterm and term-born children and to identify perinatal risk factors for neurocognitive dysfunctions. Method Children who were born very preterm (n=102; 46 males, 56 females), defined as a gestational age of less than 30 weeks and/or birthweight under 1000g, and a comparison group of term-born children (n=95; 40 males, 55 females) were assessed at age 5 with the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Stop Signal Task, several tasks of the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks, and a Digit Span task. Results When sociodemographic characteristics were taken into account, very preterm children scored worse than term-born children on all neurocognitive functions, except on tasks measuring inhibition and sustained attention, for which results were inconclusive. Effect sizes for group effects were small to medium (r2 varying between 0.02 and 0.07). Principal component isolated four factors: visual–motor coordination, face/emotion recognition, reaction time/attention, and accuracy/attention. When sociodemographic and child characteristics at birth were accounted for, bronchopulmonary dysplasia was significantly negatively associated with all four components and also with working memory. Interpretation Very preterm children are at risk for problems on a broad array of neurocognitive functions. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is an independent risk factor for impaired neurocognitive functioning.

This study investigated prediction of separate cognitive abilities at the age of 5 years by cognitive development at the ages of both 2 and 3 years, and the agreement between these measurements, in very preterm children.Preterm children (n=102; 44 males; 58 females) with a gestational age less than 30 weeks and/or birthweight less than 1000g were assessed at the ages of 2 and 3 years using the second edition of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, the Child Behaviour Checklist, and a neurological examination, and at the age of 5 years using the third edition of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence.Cognitive development at ages 2 and 3 years explained 44% and 57% respectively of full-scale intelligence at the age of 5 years. Adding psychomotor, neurological, and behavioural outcomes to the regression model could not or only marginally improve the prediction; adding perinatal and sociodemographic characteristics to the regression model increased the explained variance to 57% and 64% respectively. These percentages were comparable for verbal intelligence. Processing speed quotient and especially performance intelligence were predicted less accurately.Not all aspects of intelligence are predicted sufficiently by the Mental Development Index at ages 2 and 3 years. Follow-up of very preterm children until at least the age of 5 years is needed to distinguish between different aspects of cognitive development.

Two studies examined the understanding and self-reported use of rules for the expressive display of emotions in children with high functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASD) and in typically developing children. In Study 1, children from the two groups reported display rules equally often when presented with hypothetical situations that provided clear motives for using display rules, although emotion-masking displays were more commonly identified for vignettes with prosocial rather than self-protective motives. In Study 2, children were interviewed about display rule use in real life. Children with HFASD reported display rules less often, included more prototypical examples, and referred less often to prosocial motives than typically developing children. Children with HFASD appear to be aware of display rules, but are less adept at identifying the interpersonal functions of such rules than their typically developing peers. © 2010 Psychology Press.