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This report presents both small scale laboratory tests and tunnel fire tests carried out in a FORMAS project. Four series of small scale laboratory tests were conducted to obtain the material properties, burning properties, water spray distributions, and spray droplet size distributions. The main efforts were, by adopting the Froude scaling, seven series of tests conducted in a about 50 m long container tunnel with a scale of 1 to 3. This report presents results on the influence of low pressure, medium pressure and high pressure water-based fixed fire fighting systems (FFFSs) on fire development, fire spread to adjacent vehicles, structural protection, tenability, smoke control, spray deflection and spray resistances. The focus is to compare the performance of three default FFFSs and to evaluate the efficiency of each of the FFFS. The results show that the default low pressure FFFS performs well in term of suppressing the fire development, preventing the fire spread to nearby vehicles, providing tenable conditions for evacuation and rescue service, protecting tunnel structure and easing the problem with spray deflection due to tunnel ventilation. The default high pressure FFFS is usually on the opposite side while the default medium pressure FFFS usually lie in between.

Sprays produced by injecting water into quiescent air by three different types of nozzles were characterised by optical methods. The droplet velocities and droplet size distributions were assessed by the use of high speed shadowgraphs.

Low pressure, medium pressure and high pressure water-based fire suppression systems were tested in a medium scale tunnel (scale 1:3). The primary objective was to investigate which of these systems are most effective in the suppression or control of different types of tunnel fires. The default low, medium and high pressure systems refer to full scale water flow rates of 10 mm/min, 6.8 mm/min and 3.7 mm/min, respectively. Some other water densities were also tested to investigate the effects, as well as different ventilation velocities and activation criteria. Several series of fire tests were conducted for different fire scenarios. The fire scenarios considered included idle wood pallet fires, loosely packed wood crib fires, loosely packed wood and plastic crib fires, and pool fires, with or without a top cover on the fuel load. Comparisons of the three default systems based on the three parameters: heat release rate, energy released and possibility of fire spread, show that the performance of the default low pressure system is usually the most effective based on the parameters studied. The default high pressure system usually yields results less effective in comparison to the default low pressure system. The performance of the default medium pressure system usually lies in between them. The high pressure system behaves very differently in comparison to the others, in terms of tunnel ventilation velocity, water density, operating pressure, and the presence of the top cover. © 2024 The Authors, The work was financially supported by the Swedish Research Council Formas (2019-00521), which is gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to express their gratitude to Prof. Patrick van Hees at Lund University for his valuable input in the test planning process. Thanks also to our colleague Joel Blom, and other technicians at RISE for the great assistance in conducting the tests, and the Södra Älvsborg's Rescue Service for the support on site.

The exterior application of fire-retardant (FR) timber necessitates it to have high durability because of the possibility to be exposed to rainfall. In this study, water-leaching resistance of FR wood has been imparted by grafting phosphate and carbamate groups of the water-soluble FR additives ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP)/urea onto the hydroxyl groups of wood polymers via vacuum-pressure impregnation, followed by drying/heating in hot air. A darker and more reddish wood surface was observed after the modification. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, solid-state 13C cross-polarization magic-angle-spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (13C CP-MAS NMR), and direct-excitation 31P MAS NMR suggested the formation of C–O–P covalent bonds and urethane chemical bridges. Scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry suggested the diffusion of ADP/urea into the cell wall. The gas evolution analyzed by thermogravimetric analysis coupled with quadrupole mass spectrometry revealed a potential grafting reaction mechanism starting with the thermal decomposition of urea. Thermal behavior showed that the FR-modified wood lowered the main decomposition temperature and promoted the formation of char residues at elevated temperatures. The FR activity was preserved even after an extensive water-leaching test, confirmed by the limiting oxygen index (LOI) and cone calorimetry. The reduction of fire hazards was achieved through the increase of the LOI to above 80%, reduction of 30% of the peak heat release rate (pHRR2), reduction of smoke production, and a longer ignition time. The modulus of elasticity of FR-modified wood increased by 40% without significantly decreasing the modulus of rupture., Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-04-21 (joosat);Funder: OP RDE (Grant no.CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000803); CT WOOD, Luleå University of TechnologyLicens fulltext: CC BY License

Licens fulltext: CC BY 4.0

The reasons behind the occurrence of a second/end peak heat release rate (PHRR) during wood combustion under radiative heating were determined. Effects of the type of rear material, wood thickness, char progression, and its microstructure, as well as moisture content/transport in spruce wood, were studied. Rear materials used were insulating Kaowool, conducting steel, and the same wood but physically separated from test specimen by aluminium foil. The intensity of the second/end PHRR with Kaowool was almost 50% more than that of the sample with steel. Thus, the second/end peak is governed by the boundary condition defined by the rear material, which determines the heat losses at the rear side of the specimen and consequently the temperature of the specimen. Higher specimen temperature enhances the pyrolysis rate, thereby causing the second/end PHRR. The appearance times and values of the second/end PHRR for 30, 20, and 10 mm wood were 1740 s/78 kWm−2, 685 s/134 kWm−2, and 450 s/160 kWm−2, respectively. Char progressed to the rear of the samples even with a thin (8 mm) conductive steel substrate. Cracks in char grew almost three times wider during the second/end PHRR compared to the sample with no second/end peak. Char cracking had no significance on the time of occurrence of the second/end PHRR but affected the overall heat release. High moisture content reduced the charring rate and delayed the time of occurrence of the second/end PHRR as more water was needed to undergo a phase change, requiring a higher amount of energy., Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-06-29 (sofila)

Scheimpflug lidar is a compact alternative to traditional lidar setups. With Scheimpflug lidar it is possible to make continuous range-resolved measurements. In this study we investigate the feasibility of a Scheimpflug lidar instrument for remote sensing in pool flames, which are characterized by strong particle scattering, large temperature gradients, and substantial fluctuations in particle distribution due to turbulence. An extinction coefficient can be extracted using the information about the transmitted laser power and the spatial extent of the flame. The transmitted laser power is manifested by the intensity of the 'echo' from a hard-target termination of the beam located behind the flame, while the information of the spatial extent of the flame along the laser beam is provided by the range-resolved scattering signal. Measurements were performed in heptane and diesel flames, respectively., Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-04-14 (hanlid)

This study provides an analysis on the fire safety of passengers and the fire protection of coaches and buses. A brief review of major bus fire incidents, an overview of current regulations in Europe, and their limitations are presented. The study finds that the current small-scale fire test methods described in UN ECE Reg No. 118 need to be replaced by test methods that can assess the reaction to fire of materials when exposed to ignition sources of varying sizes. To address these shortcomings, the study proposed an expert recommendation to update the material fire safety requirements and testing for buses. Additional measures are proposed, derived from objectives and strategies applied in other transport sectors, and can be tested through existing European and international standards, which are widely used by several industries. These measures aim to extend the time with tenable conditions for a safe evacuation in case of fire, reduce the degree of damage to buses, reduce the risk for fast and excessive thermal exposure on modern energy carriers needed for a more sustainable transport sector., Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-11-01 (joosat);Licens fulltext: CC BY-NC-ND License

Guanyl-urea phosphate (GUP) was introduced into furfurylated wood in order to improve fire retardancy. Modified wood was produced via vacuum-pressure impregnation of the GUP–furfuryl alcohol (FA) aqueous solution, which was then polymerized at elevated temperature. The water leaching resistance of the treated wood was tested according to European standard EN 84, while the leached water was analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) and inductively coupled plasma–sector field mass spectrometry (ICP-SFMS). This new type of furfurylated wood was further characterized in the laboratory by evaluating its morphology and elemental composition using optical microscopy and electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX). The chemical functionality was detected using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and the fire resistance was tested using cone calorimetry. The dimensional stability was evaluated in wet–dry soaking cycle tests, along with the mechanical properties, such as the Brinell hardness and bending strength. The fire retardancy of the modified furfurylated wood indicated that the flammability of wood can be depressed to some extent by introducing GUP. This was reflected in an observed reduction in heat release rate (HRR2) from 454.8 to 264.9 kW/m2, without a reduction in the material properties. In addition, this leaching-resistant furfurylated wood exhibited higher fire retardancy compared to conventional furfurylated wood. A potential method for producing fire-retardant treated furfurylated wood stable to water exposure has been suggested., Validerad;2022;Nivå 2;2022-05-02 (hanlid);Funder: CT WOOD, Luleå University of Technology; European Structural and Investment Fund, OP RDE (CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000803);Part of special issue: Performance and Application of Novel Biocomposites II, Advanced Research Supporting the Forestry and Wood Processing Sector’s Adaptation to Global Change and the 4th Industrial Revolution

The ignition of natural fuels by sparks from strikes between metals and hard rock is far from understood and the ignition potential of sparks from rock strikes during heavy machinery operations is disputed in the scientific literature. This study utilises a spectrally resolved technique to study the temperature evolution of metal sparks from rock strikes. The study shows that initial temperature after collision can easily reach 1500 °C and this temperature can increase additionally by several hundred degrees as rapid oxidation processes are initiated, often leading to further disintegration of the fragment. The average temperature of fragments from such collisions is here measured to 1400 – 2000 °C and the combination of temperature, size and exothermic processes makes them viable for forest litter igniting. However, ignition on forest lands is always an unlikely, although possible outcome of heavy machinery operations and should be considered in risk assessment of the activity.