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We describe the cloning of the glutamine synthetase 1 (GS1) gene based on cross-homology with the glutamine synthetase 2 (GS2) gene in Drosophila melanogaster. We have determined the GS gene number in the Drosophila genome, and we describe the isolation of cDNA clones corresponding to the two isoforms, their entire sequence and their transcription pattern. We looked for subcellular localization of one enzymic isoform; in this way, we were able to locate the GS1 enzyme within the mitochondria of D. melanogaster. We have compared different GS sequences from plants and humans; emerging evolutionary implications are discussed. In addition, we have identified a certain highly stable secondary structure at the nucleotide level in the coding region of isoforms located in the organella.

The paper reports the existence of peculiar polymers (e-polymers) obtained from the epidermis of Drosophila melanogaster larvae. E-polymers result from the assembly of two components held together by alkali-labile bonds. Such components can be separated by CsCl density gradients and by DEAE-cellulose chromatography after controlled alkaline hydrolysis. One of the components contains predominantly neutral sugars and a phenolic substance (S-fraction). The other contains predominantly amino acids, aminosugars and a phenolic substance. This fraction can be visualized as serial multimers of a monomer subunit. It is suggested that e-polymers are continuous tridimensional structures which might have morphogenetic significance.

Drosophila melanogaster tissues carrying a third chromosome with the deletion Df(3R)Kar(D2) make a 40,000-dalton (Dal) heat shock protein not made by wild type. The unusual polypeptide was inducible in every tissue examined. Tryptic peptide fingerprints showed it to include part of the 70,000-Dal major heat shock protein. Mapping experiments placed the mutation responsible for the 40,000-Dal protein at or close to the kar(D2) deletion. One break point of the deletion is in subdivision 87A, close to or at a heat shock locus that codes for the 70,000-Dal protein. The results are consistent with the possibility that this break point is within a gene for the 70,000-Dal protein, leaving only the initial portion of its coding sequence. This would specify the direction of transcription of the mutant gene as proximal to distal on the normal chromosome. The 87A heat shock locus should contain at least two genes for the 70,000-Dal protein, because embryos homozygous for the kar(D2) deletion and lacking the heat shock locus at 87C, which also codes for the 70,000-Dal protein, nevertheless produced both the 40,000-Dal and the 70,000-Dal proteins upon temperature elevation. Using the presence of the 40,000-Dal protein to monitor chromosome segregation, we found that embryos homozygous for deletions of the heat shock puff site at 93D exhibited a normal electrophoretic pattern of heat shock proteins.

Glutamine synthetase I (L-glutamate:ammonia ligase, ADP forming; EC 6.3.1.2) was purified from Drosophila melanogaster larvae. The complete enzyme has an apparent molecular weight of 380,000. The subunit of the active enzyme has an apparent molecular weight of 43,000 after sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Routine preparations yield enzymes which have at least another polypeptide component of apparent molecular weight of 64,000. Several factors suggest that the 64,000-dalton polypeptide might be a transformation product of the 43,000-dalton subunit which occurs in association with enzyme inactivation. Distinct from its protein subunit, from pure glutamine synthetase I a material can be extracted which can be labeled with 32P-labeled gamma-ATP using polynucleotide kinase. After alkaline hydrolysis the majority of the radioactivity is recovered as 5'2' and 5'3' ribonucleotide diphosphates, and after venom phosphodiesterase digestion as 5' ribonucleotide. We therefore conclude that the native glutamine synthetase I enzyme contains, or at least is reproducibly associated with, an RNA component. Several characteristics of the labeled material indicate that the RNA is small in size and is bound to polymer molecules different from RNA.

Recombinational and deletion mapping of electrophoretic variants of the glutamine synthetase I isozyme (GSI) in Drosophila melanogaster locates the gene in the 21B region on the second chromosome. We have conducted a genetic analysis of the region extending cytologically from 21A to 21B4-6. Recessive lethal mutations were generated by ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) and ethyl nitrosourea (ENU) mutagenesis and by hybrid dysgenesis (HD). These lethals fall into seven functional groups, which were partially ordered by complementation with cytologically defined deficiencies of this region generated by hybrid dysgenesis. Two of the EMS- and two of the ENU-induced lethals fulfill biochemical criteria expected for null alleles of the GSI gene.

Glutamine synthetase II was purified from Drosophila melanogaster adults. It was completely separable from the isozyme glutamine synthetase I by means of DEAE chromatography. The complete enzyme has an apparent molecular weight of 360,000. After two-dimensional electrophoresis it gave a single molecular species with an apparent molecular weight of 42,000. Structural analysis of the two isozymes showed that they are different both in subunit molecular weight and in isoelectric point. Peptide maps of the purified subunits showed considerable dissimilarity. Glutamine synthetase II is more active than glutamine synthetase I in the transferase assay, while the opposite is true in the biosynthetic assay. The kinetic parameters were determined, showing again noteworthy differences between the two isozymes. We therefore conclude that two forms of glutamine synthetase are present in Drosophila, with different primary structures, different kinetic behavior, and the possibility of different functional properties.

We tested for recombination within the DNA that codes for ribosomal RNA (rDNA) on the X and Y chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster. The criterion was the appearance of intermediate bb alleles on X-Y recombinants from wild bb(+) and lethal bb(1) loci carried on parental chromosomes. Recombination within the rDNA occurs only when the rDNA of the X chromosome is inverted. We conclude that rDNAs of normal X and Y chromosomes have opposite orientation with respect to the centromere. The implications of this observation are discussed.

In genetic combinations undergoing ribosomal DNA magnification, the frequency of crossing-over between X and Y chromosomes is increased at least 20-fold above that in similar combinations not undergoing magnification. Such recombination occurs at the ribosomal DNA level. The data are consistent with a model where extra copies of ribosomal DNA are formed which, after circularization, are integrated into the chromosome.

Those Drosophila bobbed males whose progeny exhibit the phenomenon of "rDNA magnification" are shown to have higher rates of rRNA synthesis than normal males. Further evidence that the magnification process is characterized by a stepwise accumulation of rDNA was obtained. A working hypothesis to explain the magnification process is advanced.