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Agricultural businesses in the Enrekang District, especially in the Alla District, are growing rapidly. This was followed by the development of agricultural facilities businesses, such as the sale of inorganic fertilizers carried out by the Gapoktan group. The purpose of this study was to find out how the Gapoktan business group provides fertilizer for farmers and analyze the breakeven point (BEP) of the fertilizer sales business. This research uses a descriptive method with a quantitative approach. This study describes the state of the liquid inorganic fertilizer business when it reaches the BEP point. The results showed that the business must be able to sell liquid inorganic fertilizer as much as 200 liters per day to reach the BEP point. With a selling price of Rp10,000 per liter, the business can make a profit if it can sell more than 200 liters of fertilizer per day. By knowing the value of BEP, business management can make strategic decisions to increase business and profits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Malawi implemented reforms to its Farm Input Subsidy Program (FISP) during the 2015/16 agricultural season that allowed certain large‐scale, private sector fertiliser dealers to sell subsidised fertiliser at their network of retail stores in select districts on a pilot basis. At the same time, small‐scale independent fertiliser dealers were excluded from participating in the pilot. We use a unique panel dataset of large‐scale corporate fertiliser dealers and small‐scale independent fertiliser dealers collected before and after the policy change to estimate the impacts of the FISP on those who participated in the pilot and those who did not, using a difference‐in‐differences estimator. Results indicate that large‐scale dealers who sold the FISP fertiliser under the pilot programme in 2015/16 did not have their commercial sales either crowded‐in or crowded‐out by the FISP pilot. Instead, the average volume of fertiliser sold at each of their retail stores increased by 59% due to an increase in subsidised fertiliser sales. Conversely, small‐scale independent fertiliser dealers who were not allowed participate in the pilot had their commercial sales crowded‐out by the programme. They experienced a 60% decline in the volume of commercial fertiliser sales on average at each store. This implies that the FISP reforms have mainly benefited large‐scale fertiliser dealers who sell 90% of the fertiliser in Malawi, but caused some harm to the many small‐scale independent fertiliser dealers who sell about 10% of the private sector's fertiliser in Malawi, but often operate their businesses in more remote areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This case study examines a common agricultural cooperative structure in the United States, namely that of a business which both sells farm supplies to its members and also markets, to others, the agricultural products of its members. The case concerns whether the United Agricultural Cooperative should sell the cooperative's agronomy supply division. This division sells fertilizer, chemicals and seed. It also provides related services. The cooperative has received an acquisition inquiry from rapidly expanding agricultural retailer, Pinnacle Agricultural Holdings, LLC. The case allows readers to examine both detailed financial information as well as the cooperative's political environment. The case ends with readers being asked to recommend a decision; namely should the cooperative sell the agronomy division or should it be kept? Professors can read the authors' teaching note to learn recommended classroom teaching strategies and also to learn the actual decision which was made by this cooperative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Young rubber trees require sufficient nutrients to ensure successful planting and optimization of fertilizer cost. This study focused on the nitrogen and phosphorus requirement of the RRIM 600 and RRIT 251 young rubber trees, aged 6 - 9 months. The study was conducted using a complete randomized design (CRD) with 8 replications. The budded stumps of both clones were planted in polybags with charcoal as plant materials. Each clonal variety was distributed into 3 drip-irrigated hydroponic recirculating nutrient solution systems. The experiment started when young rubber trees had the first whorl with mature leaves. Solutions in the systems were sampled and analyzed for nitrogen and phosphorus content, and the tank volume was measured one hour after each watering event every 4 days through the experimental period. Results showed that nitrogen and phosphorus uptakes of RRIM 600 and RRIT 251 were not different. Total nitrogen use of the clones was 1191.08 ± 18.69 and 1241.09 ± 21.96 mg.plant-1, respectively, and total phosphorus use of the clones was 112.52 ± 5.22 and 131.81 ± 8.03 mg.plant-1, respectively. The RRIT 251 young rubber trees had higher nitrogen use efficiency than that of the RRIM 600 as was evident from their stem height (P < 0.05), 2.68 ± 0.16 cm.g-1 and 1.67 ± 0.22 cm.g-1, respectively. As a result, the nitrogen cost of an RRIT 251 rubber tree was lower than the RRIM 600 one around one fold or 0.006 USD. Total nitrogen and phosphorus costs for producing a young rubber tree of each clone were 0.012 and 0.008 USD, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This simulation study explored the agricultural household effects of changes in the price of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer for farmers in central Malawi. We selected the Dedza district to conduct this study, which is a district reliant on maize production for household livelihoods. This study used data from a household survey to develop and calibrate an agricultural household model for a representative household. The survey focused on socio-economic and agronomic factors. This included plot-level agronomic details for crop inputs and yields. Using our dynamic model, we found a negative association between fertilizer prices and fertilizer use, maize area, and income. Removing fertilizer prices led to an increased use of nitrogen fertilizer at the household scale from 16.8 kg to 49.6 kg and this helped increase household income by 52%. We calculated an average own-price elasticity of fertilizer demand of − 0.92. Although higher fertilizer prices increased legume acreage, which had potential environmental benefits, household income fell. Our benefit-cost ratio calculations suggest that government actions that deliver changes in fertilizer prices are relatively cost effective. Our study highlights the reliance of households on maize production and consumption for their livelihood, and the effects that changes in fertilizer prices can have upon them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With diminishing world reserves of phosphorus (P) deposits and rising fertilizer prices, it is important to find alternate sources of P for crops. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effect of four different composts C1 (animal manure and straw), C2 (garden waste), C3 (wood chips and bark), and C4 (kitchen waste) on soil P pools and P uptake by wheat on 14, 28, and 72 days after compost application. The composts were applied as a 2.5 cm thick layer on the soil surface. During sampling, only the soil underlying compost was sampled. Soil pH and total organic carbon were not affected by the amendments. Soil respiration was significantly higher in compost-amended soils compared with the unamended soil except with C4 on day 72. Addition of composts increased plant growth, and P uptake being highest on day 72 with C1 and C4. With little effect on available P concentration on day 14, there was a conversion of organic P into inorganic P in the compost treatments suggesting net mineralization of organic P on day 28. On day 72, the concentrations of the less labile P forms were higher in the compost treatments compared with the unamended suggesting precipitation and fixation as well as synthesis of organic P. This study showed that mulching with composts having high available and total P concentrations can provide plants with P and also increase soil P concentrations which could reduce the fertilizer requirement for the following crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study employs an ex-ante analytical approach to explore the financial viability of cocoa agroforestry systems in Ghana using cross-sectional data on smallholder cocoa farmers in the Western Region of Ghana. The empirical results generally show that cocoa agroforestry systems are profitable, but the medium shade tends to be more profitable. The no-shade cocoa agroforestry has the highest yield compared with other cocoa agroforestry systems. Sensitivity analysis revealed that increasing the market price by 12.2 % tends to increase the profitability of cocoa agroforestry systems. Also increasing fertilizer price does not lead to any significant change in the profitability. The study recommends the medium-shade cocoa agroforestry system as the most profitable agroforestry system for optimizing ecological and economic outcomes of smallholder cocoa farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fertilizers are important to improve agricultural productivity growth. The purpose of this study is to investigate asymmetry, leverage, and persistence of shocks on price volatility of five fertilizers using EGARCH model during stable and unstable time periods, corresponding to before and after 2007 international financial crisis, respectively. Using price data of rock phosphate, triple super phosphate, diammonium phosphate (DAP), urea, and potassium chloride, it is found that fertilizers price volatilities display an apparent asymmetric response to shocks which have much pronounced and permanent effect during unstable period than in during stable period. Such effects should be taken into account whenever volatility modeling of fertilizers is considered, particularly during periods of volatile price. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Urea fertilizer is widely used in the United States, however, urea is not publicly traded and formula pricing is common. This article studies spatial transmission and efficiency of urea prices in the Arkansas River-New Orleans urea markets and the New Orleans-Middle East urea markets. A vector error correction model (VECM) and Baulch's (1997) parity bound model (PBM) are estimated. A threshold VECM is considered, but no threshold effects are found so threshold effects are not included in the final VECM. The estimated VECM shows that violations of spatial price equilibrium are corrected faster between Arkansas River-New Orleans prices than New Orleans-Middle East prices. The long term adjustments to deviations from spatial equilibrium in the New Orleans-Middle East price relationship are made through adjustments in the New Orleans price. The PBM shows that New Orleans-Middle East price spreads are greater than transportation costs about 23% of the time. [EconLit citations: C32, Q13, R32]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We aim to determine the effects of agricultural factors input per hectare on wheat production, and to optimize the allocation of wheat production factors under three scenarios and in different operating modes. Data were collected from 204 farming households using a face-to-face questionnaire. The sampled farms were selected through a stratified random sampling technique. We find fertilizer cost, irrigation cost and machinery cost all positively and significantly affect the per-unit-area wheat production, indicating the labor cost is not the major driving factor on wheat yield increment. Multi-object optimization model is used to allocate the production factors per hectare. We find under the Business as usual (BAU) scenario, the irrigation cost per-hectare wheat production after optimization in 2014 grows at a rate of 24.31% and accounts for 14.9% of total input. Under the Cooperate Environmental Sustainability (CES) scenario, the fertilizer and pesticide costs after optimization drop significantly by 42.83% and 21.41%, respectively. Under the Rapid Benefit Growth (RBG) scenario, the irrigation cost after optimization increase by 2.56% and the fertilizer cost increases by 4.69% compared with the surveyed data. Comparison of optimized data among three operating modes shows that the labor costs at household farm and cooperative farm both increase significantly. Cooperative farms are more successful in production factor use efficiency and economic performance. In conclusion, wheat production at different operating modes could be improved so as to constitute more efficient and economic use of production factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) yield in the major growing environments of India has been stagnating despite the development of high yielding varieties and increasing use of chemical fertilizers. On farm experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of site-specific nutrient management (SSNM). Field and crop specific NPK rates were calculated using quantitative evaluation of fertility of tropical soils (QUEFTS) model. The average 2-yr yield advantage of SSNM over farmer fertilizer practice (FFP) was 7 Mg ha-1. The N agronomic efficiency increase of SSNM over FFP was 32 kg kg-1, the N recovery efficiency of SSNM was 0.14 kg kg-1 greater than that of FFP and the N physiological efficiency of SSNM was 54 kg kg-1 greater than that of FFP, whereas the partial factor productivity of SSNM was 148 kg less than that of FFP. Use of SSNM led to a reduction of fertilizer costs by an average of US$10 ha-1 crop-1 and an increase in gross return above fertilizer costs by $254 ha-1 crop-1 compared with FFP. Zone NPK recommendation maps and customized fertilizer blends were also developed. The results showed the potential of SSNM in significantly increasing yield and nutrient use efficiency of cassava. Future research is needed to validate the customized fertilizer blends and fine tune zone NPK recommendation maps which will help reduce the need for field specific modeling and intensive crop monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jayne et al. make a valuable contribution to emerging empirical evidence on agricultural input subsidy programs in Africa by examining the effects of corrupt "diversion" of subsidized fertilizers on the displacement or crowding out effects of farmers' purchases of subsidized fertilizer on purchases of unsubsidized fertilizer. Unfortunately, their estimation of the effects of this on economic and financial benefit cost ratios (BCRs) is methodologically flawed and, for Malawi, is also undermined by problematic use of data. This comment presents a consistent methodology for revised estimates of both economic BCR and fiscal efficiency for the Malawi program. This shows that the underlying economic BCR of subsidized fertilizers in Malawi has been higher than estimated by Jayne et al. and is largely unaffected by diversion and displacement, but that the fiscal efficiency of investments in the program is strongly affected by diversion and displacement in program implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because of tensions on fossil energy and phosphorus markets, the rise in fertilizer prices observed during the last decades may continue in the future, putting into question production pathways relying heavily on crop intensification. To evaluate how, in this context, economic choices may alter crop yields, we first construct different fertilizer price scenarios to 2050 based on an econometric relation with oil and gas prices. Other possible scenarios, such as the continuation of historical trends, are also considered. The resulting changes in fertilizer price range between +0.8% and +3.6% per year over the 2005-2050 period. These scenarios are tested in a global land-use model incorporating an endogenous representation of the land-fertilizer substitution. We find that the supply-side response to rising fertilizer prices could lower crop yields in 2050 from −6% to −13%, with a corresponding increase in global cropland area ranging between 100 and 240 Mha if the demand for food and nonfood products has to be met. The sensitivity of these results is tested with regard to assumptions on food consumption, change in potential yield and nutrient use efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The massive application of chemical fertilizers to support crop production has resulted in soil, water, and air pollution at a global scale. In the same time, this situation escalated consumers' concerns regarding quality and safety of food production which, due to increase of fertilizer prices, have provoked corresponding price increase of food products. It is widely accepted that the only solution is to boost exploitation of plant-beneficial microorganisms which in conditions of undisturbed soils play a key role in increasing the availability of minerals that otherwise are inaccessible to plants. This review paper is focused on the employment of microbial inoculants and their production and formulation. Special attention is given to biotechniques that are not fully exploited as tools for biofertilizer manufacturing such as microbial co-cultivation and co-immobilization. Another emerging area includes biotechnological production and combined usage of microorganisms/active natural compounds (biostimulants) such as plant extracts and exudates, compost extracts, and products like strigolactones, which improve not only plant growth and development but also plant-microbial interactions. The most important potential and novel strategies in this field are presented as well as the tendencies that will be developed in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optimal crop choice and fertilizer applications depend on the stochastic dynamics of commodity prices, fertilizer prices, and the agronomic effects of rotation versus monoculture. The efficient decision rule accounts for real option values associated with maintaining land disposition in an environment with highly uncertain future prices and irreversible past planting decisions. We parameterize a baseline model for a representative acre in Iowa and compare the model's pre- dictions and profits to relatively naive, shorter horizon decision rules, and a field managed with optimal fertilizer applications conditional on corn and soybeans always being rotated. We also examine the effects of a permanently larger premium on corn prices relative to soybean prices, which has been observed in locations near recently established ethanol plants. We then compare the various decision rules to actual crop choices in a panel of over 6,500 Iowa plots during 1979- 2007. As compared to less forward-looking objectives, we find the agronomic benefits of rotations coupled with real option values can lead to a more inelastic response of planting decisions to both transitory and permanent price changes. Always rotating, regardless of prices, is close to optimal, but so are shorter-horizon objectives. One implication is that reduced corn monoculture and fertilizer application rates might be implemented with modest incentive payments of $4 per acre or less. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study solves for the optimum replacement rate (ORR) and initial replacement year (IRY) of cocoa trees ( Theobroma cacao) in Ghana to maximize net present value and achieve steady state by employing a phased replanting approach. The annual ORR is 5%-7% across the three production systems studied: Low Input, Landrace Cocoa, High Input, No Shade Amazon Cocoa, and High Input, Medium Shade Cocoa. The optimal IRY ranges from year 5 to year 9 as a function of cocoa prices, fertilizer prices, labor prices, and percentage yield loss due to disease outbreaks. Deterministic results project economic gains that exceed currently practiced replacement approaches by 5.57%-14.67% across production systems with reduced, annual income volatility. The method applied in this study can be used to increase cocoa yields and stabilize income over time, and facilitate substantial quality of life improvements for many subsistence cocoa farmers in Ghana and around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Is low input use by poor, smallholder farmers caused by time-inconsistent behavior or by limited ability to buy inputs? Are input subsidies the best solution to stimulate input demand or are there smarter solutions? These issues are investigated by combining survey data, stated preference questions, and randomized experiments in Malawi. The demand for fertilizer at harvest time and at planting time, farm gate shadow prices for fertilizer, and the gap between the willingness-to-accept (WTA) and willingness-to-pay (WTP) prices for a standard input package were investigated. Significant effects of timing and of cash constraints were found, suggesting the possibility that smarter designs exist, such as distribution of smaller packages from harvest time to planting time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat, being staple food occupies a very conspicuous place for ensuring food security in Pakistan but the real matter of concern is the gap between its potential and actual yield. The present study has attempted to identify the factors that have been hampering its required production. There has certainly been many production hindering factors. The aim of the research was to analyze those obstacles and present useful suggestions so that state of food security in the country can be improved. A cross-sectional survey research was conducted through an interview schedule after selecting the sample of 120 respondents randomly. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected in this research. The results of the study indicate that high prices of fertilizers and pesticides coupled with their adulteration are the most prominent barriers of wheat production. Likewise, unavailability of irrigation water and good quality low priced seed are also exacerbating the problem. Farmers are also being exploited by marketer in terms of inappropriate payments and dealings in the presence of price fluctuations and non-availability of credits to them. Last but not the least there remains a big gap between latest information regarding wheat and its growers due to which the former was not easily accessible and relied upon. The arguments in this paper could act as a food for thought for all the concerned stakeholders for an in-depth understanding of the issue. In this way they may be able to control to the barriers before it is too late by giving due attention to the factors identified in this paper. Otherwise the state of food insecurity may worsen in the years to come. Government level check and balance and mass media campaigns can play a potential role for reducing the problems of production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fertiliser intended for government subsidy programmes is sometimes diverted and sold to farmers at or near market prices. Failure to account for such 'leakage' can upwardly bias econometric estimates of the effect of government fertiliser subsidy programmes on total fertiliser use. This paper extends the framework used in earlier studies on the crowding in/crowding out effects of subsidised fertiliser on commercial fertiliser purchases to account for leakage, and then applies it to the case of Zambia. Results suggest that each additional kg of subsidised fertiliser injected into the system increases total fertiliser use by 0.54 kg. Without controlling for leakage, the estimate would have been 0.87, an overestimate of 61%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased biofuel production has been associated with direct and indirect land-use change, changes in land management practices, and increased application of fertilizers and pesticides. This has resulted in negative environmental consequences in terms of increased carbon emissions, water quality, pollution, and sediment loads, which may offset the pursued environmental benefits of biofuels. This study analyzes two distinct policies aimed at mitigating the negative environmental impacts of increased agricultural production due to biofuel expansion. The first scenario is a fertilizer tax, which results in an increase in the US nitrogen fertilizer price, and the second is a policy-driven reversion of US cropland into forest land (afforestation). Results show that taxing fertilizer reduces US production of nitrogen-intensive crops, but this is partially offset by higher fertilizer use in other countries responding to higher crop prices. In the afforestation scenario, crop production shifts from high-yielding land in the United States to low-yielding land in the rest of the world. Important policy implications are that domestic policy changes implemented by a large producer like the United States can have fairly significant impacts on the aggregate world commodity markets. Also, the law of unintended consequences results in an inadvertent increase in global greenhouse gas emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We examine the effect of an information treatment via "peer farmers" and a 50% price subsidy treatment on organic fertilizer adoption. • We conduct a randomized controlled trial with 1287 tea-cultivating farmers in Vietnam. • Both treatments have significant impacts on farmers' adoption of organic fertilizer. • The information treatment is approximately one-third as effective as the subsidy treatment. • The information treatment performs well for members of certification groups. Encouraging farmers to adopt pro-environmental production is vital to the promotion of sustainable agriculture. Previous observational studies emphasize the importance of economic incentives and information access to farmers' decision-making processes; however, due to endogeneity issues, little strong causal evidence is available. This study makes an original contribution by experimentally examining the impacts of the 50% price subsidy and information treatments on farmers' adoption of organic fertilizer. A short video sharing the experience of farmers who have applied organic fertilizer is selected as our information treatment. We analyze data from a randomized controlled trial (RCT) conducted with 1287 small-scale tea farmers in Vietnam. We find significant impacts of both the information and 50% price subsidy treatments. Moreover, the effect of the former is approximately one-third that of the latter. Subgroup treatment analysis also reveals that the information treatment performs well for members of certification groups. Thus, to induce farmers to adopt pro-environmental production behaviors, information treatment can partially substitute for subsidies to reduce the burden on the public budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]