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Feldspars are essential components in the ceramic industry, and the increasing demand for high-grade fluxes has recently elevated their status as critical raw materials for the European Union. This survey aims to evaluate, for the first time, Italy's mining potential for the production of ceramic fluxes through a methodological approach that considers lithology, technological value, degree of alteration and potential for mining exploitation. The most promising resources are identified in the Alps, the Apennines, Sardinia and the Calabro–Peloritan Arc, based on the chemical composition of rocks without any beneficiation. Key parameters include the equivalent feldspar content and the sum of Fe2O3 + TiO2. Factors that may influence the feasibility of exploitation are critically discussed for granitoids and syenites, acidic volcanics, aplites and pegmatites, albitites, felsic metamorphics, silica-saturated and silica-undersaturated volcanics, arkosic sandstones and rocks that have undergone epithermal alteration. All resources are compared with deposits currently under extraction and assessed against benchmarks or well-recognized raw materials used as market proxies. This review lays the groundwork for operational mining exploration by clearly defining Italy's potential for feldspathic fluxes. The exploratory assessment approach to feldspathic resources can also be applied in other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concentrations and fluxes of arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd) were examined in the hydrological cycle, litterfall and soils in a maquis broadleaved evergreen forest stand in western Greece. The concentrations of the metals in the hydrological cycle ranged from 0.076 to 0.306 μg L−1 and 0.040–0.050 μg L−1 for As and Cd, respectively. It was found that the enrichment of As in the atmosphere was both due to suspended geogenic material and long range transfer, whereas for Cd the long range transfer was the predominant way for deposition. Two models were assessed to find the volumes of percolation water to compare the fluxes with the estimated ones derived from soil solution measurements. The daily deterministic forest-hydrological model (WBS3) was found to perform better than the physically based 1D semi-distributed soil-plant-atmosphere model (BROOK90). When calculating the total amounts of the heavy metals in soils, the statistical uncertainty derived from every soil layer has to be taken into account. The residence time of Cd in the forest floor (L + FH) of the soils was found 6.4 years, whereas that of As 36.3 years. This difference shows the mobility of Cd in comparison to As in the soils of the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nitrogen (N) dominates Earth's atmosphere (78% N2) but occurs in trace abundances in silicate minerals, making it a sensitive tracer of recycled surface materials into the mantle. The mechanisms controlling N transfer between terrestrial reservoirs remain uncertain because low N abundances in mineral‐hosted fluid inclusions (FIs) are difficult to measure. Using new techniques, we analyzed N and He isotope compositions and abundances in olivine‐ and pyroxene‐hosted FIs from arc volcanoes in Southern Chile, Cascadia, Central America, and the Southern Marianas. These measurements enable an estimate of the global flux of N outgassing from arcs (4.0 × 1010 mol/yr). This suggests that Earth is currently in a state of net N ingassing, with roughly half of subducted N returned to the mantle. Additionally, the N outgassing flux of individual arcs correlates with the thickness of subducting pelagic sediment, suggesting that N cycling in the modern solid Earth is largely controlled by sediment subduction. Plain Language Summary: Nitrogen (N) largely behaves like an inert gas, and so it is substantially more concentrated at Earth's surface than in Earth's deep interior. Over geologic time, N can be transported between the solid Earth and the surface, and its concentration can change in both of these settings. Volcanic gases transport N from the interior to the surface, while some surface N returns into the solid Earth via plate subduction. Here, we present measurements of N and helium (He) gas trapped within crystals in volcanic rocks to determine how much N is transported to the surface through volcanism associated with plate subduction. We find that the amount of N returning to the surface through volcanism is less than estimates of how much N is transported into the solid Earth, suggesting that, overall, N is being returned to the planet's deep interior. Additionally, we observe that the amount of oceanic sediment that is subducted correlates with the amount of N that comes out of volcanoes, making it the primary carrier of N into the solid Earth. Key Points: Arc lavas yield fluxes of 4.0 × 1010 mol N/yr, similar to estimates from volcanic arc gases, likely resulting in net mantle ingassing of NNitrogen isotopes and N‐He mixing models highlight that small contributions of sediment dominate volcanic arc N budgetsSubducted sediment thickness correlates with N2/3He ratios, and likely controls arc N fluxes rather than slab parameters or thermal state [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Randomly moving active particles can be herded into directed motion by asymmetric geometric structures. Although such a rectification process has been extensively studied due to its fundamental, biological, and technological relevance, a comprehensive understanding of active matter rectification based on single particle dynamics remains elusive. Here, by combining experiments, simulations, and theory, we study the directed transport and energetics of swimming bacteria navigating through funnel-shaped obstacles--a paradigmatic model of rectification of living active matter. We develop a microscopic parameter-free model for bacterial rectification, which quantitatively explains experimental and numerical observations and predicts the optimal geometry for the maximum rectification efficiency. Furthermore, we quantify the degree of time irreversibility and measure the extractable work associated with bacterial rectification. Our study provides quantitative solutions to long-standing questions on bacterial rectification and establishes a generic relationship between time irreversibility, particle fluxes, and extractable work, shedding light on the energetics of nonequilibrium rectification processes in living systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fluxes of greenhouse gases are a critical component of the earth's natural climate, but anthropogenic emissions have created an imbalance and resulted in global climate change. Quantifying the emission of these gases is vital to our understanding of their sources and sinks, both natural and anthropogenic. The static chamber method, in which a system of interest is enclosed, and gas concentrations are measured over time, is widely used to estimate fluxes of greenhouse gases. With the development of instruments such as infrared gas analyzers (IRGAs) supporting high‐frequency concentration data, there is a growing need for open‐source workflows to calculate fluxes. Here we present fluxfinder, an R package designed to support reproducible calculations and processing of greenhouse gas fluxes measured with the static chamber method. The package includes raw data file parsing from widely used IRGAs, metadata matching, unit conversion, flux estimations, and initial quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC). Diagnostic graphical plots provide a transparent way to differentiate between measurement issues and nonlinear behavior. The package is also designed to be easily integrated with the gasfluxes package for further fitting of nonlinear concentration‐time models, allowing alternative or additional flux QA/QC. The fluxfinder package offers a flexible workflow that is easily adaptable to promote open and reproducible greenhouse gas flux estimations. Plain Language Summary: Measuring and understanding climate‐changing "greenhouse gases" such as carbon dioxide is an active area of research. New greenhouse gas analyzer technology produces large volumes of gas concentration data and can complicate estimations of greenhouse gas release over time, referred to as the flux. Here we describe an open source package, fluxfinder, which is designed to support the calculation of greenhouse gas fluxes from chamber measurements. The fluxfinder allows users to parse raw data files from greenhouse gas analyzers, match that data to sample or measurement information, convert units, and make calculations with associated statistics for quality assessment. The package is versatile, widely applicable, allows for adaptable workflows, and is extensively documented to promote open and reproducible calculations of greenhouse gas fluxes. Key Points: fluxfinder is a highly adaptable R package designed to calculate greenhouse gas fluxesThe package allows users to parse gas analyzer data files, match data and metadata, compute fluxes, and generate QA/QC plots and diagnosticsfluxfinder integrates easily into flux calculation workflows and promotes reproducible, open science [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical instability waves (TIWs) are oceanic features that form around the equatorial Pacific cold tongue and influence the large-scale circulation and coupled climate variability including El Niño–Southern Oscillation. Local air–sea coupling over TIWs is thought to play an important role in the atmosphere and ocean's energy and tracer budgets but is not well captured in coarse-resolution models. In this study, we isolate the impacts of TIW thermal (sea surface temperature–driven) and current (surface current–driven) feedbacks by removing TIW signatures in air–sea coupling fields in a high-resolution regional coupled model. The thermal feedback is found to damp TIW temperature variance by a factor of 2, associated both with the direct dependence of surface heat fluxes on SST (∼74%) and indirect impacts on surface winds (∼35%) and air temperature and humidity (∼−9%). These changes lead to cooling of the cold tongue SST by up to 0.1°C through reduced TIW-driven meridional heat fluxes and associated small changes in atmospheric circulation. The current feedback is decomposed into TIW (i.e., mesoscale) and mean (i.e., large-scale) components using separate experiments, with both having distinct impacts on TIWs and the mean state. The mesoscale current feedback reduces TIW eddy kinetic energy (EKE) by 22% through the eddy wind work, while the mean current feedback induces a further reduction of 8% by extracting energy from the mean currents and thus reducing barotropic EKE shear production. An improved understanding of small-scale tropical Pacific processes is needed to address biases in coarse-resolution models that impact their predictions and projections of Pacific climate variability and change. Significance Statement: Tropical instability waves (TIWs) are oceanic features with ∼1000-km wavelengths that propagate westward on either side of the eastern equatorial Pacific cold tongue. TIWs drive lateral and vertical heat fluxes that impact several aspects of El Niño–Southern Oscillation. While climate models with a moderate, 1/4° ocean resolution can capture some TIW variability, they fail to properly represent many associated processes such as the impact of TIWs on the overlying atmosphere. Using sensitivity studies performed using a high-resolution regional coupled model, we study the impact of TIW air–sea coupling on the eastern Pacific climate system. Increased understanding of small-scale processes from studies such as this is essential to understand and address biases in models used for seasonal climate predictions and projections in the Pacific region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding process is widely used in various industries for its ability to produce high-quality welds at a low cost. However, TIG welding struggles with welding thick stainless steel in a single pass, reducing production efficiency. To address this, new TIG variants such as activated TIG (A-TIG), flux bound TIG (FB-TIG), and flux zone TIG (FZ-TIG) have been developed to enhance penetration in austenitic stainless steel. This study investigates the effects of TiO2 and Fe2O3 flux on 304 stainless steels welded using A-TIG, FB-TIG, and FZ-TIG processes. Results show a slight increase in the depth-to-width (d/w) ratio for A-TIG and FB-TIG, while FZ-TIG achieved a 59% higher d/w ratio compared to autogenous TIG welding. The increased penetration is attributed to the reversal Marangoni convection and arc constriction. Microstructural analysis reveals a higher delta ferrite content in A-TIG and FZ-TIG welds due to increased heat input. Additionally, FZ-TIG welds exhibited an 11.5% higher microhardness compared to autogenous TIG welds. FZ-TIG welding enhances penetration and mechanical properties effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cavernous weathering forms have long been studied and discussed as enigmas in geomorphology. Recently, their evolution has been shown to be controlled by moisture patterns, which are still poorly understood. For the first time, capillary water and vapor fluxes were characterized in detail at tafone in a temperate climate of central Europe using a wide range of methods adapted from soil hydrology. Time domain reflectometry showed that moisture flows from the rock interior to the evaporation front in the shallow subsurface of both — the backwalls and the outer surface. When overland flow occurs on the outer surfaces (after heavy rains), 10 mm/day can infiltrate and flow toward the backwalls. The main sources of water for tafone are the influx of water from the rock interior and the infiltration of overland flow after heavy rains, while condensation of air humidity is a minor source. Influx from the rock interior is coupled to the evaporation rate, which varies between 100 and 300 kg/m2/year in summer and less than 15 kg/m2/year in winter. More water evaporates from the backwall of the tafone than from the outer surface, and more salt is deposited in the backwalls, resulting in predominant salt weathering in the backwalls. The tafoni studied thus evolve, and the cavities deepen. Tafoni in arid and semi‐arid environments generally show a much higher contrast between evaporation rates from backwalls and outer surfaces than tafoni and honeycombs in temperate and coastal environments. Tafoni in temperate settings are therefore more susceptible to degradation when evaporation decreases or inflow to the tafone increases. This study also shows that microtensiometers can be used to determine moisture content with high spatial resolution, while time domain reflectometry allows accurate characterization of moisture patterns with depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetlands are the largest natural source of global atmospheric methane (CH4). Despite advances to our understanding of changes in temperature and precipitation extremes, their impacts on carbon‐rich ecosystems such as wetlands, remain significantly understudied. Here, we quantify the impacts of extreme temperature, precipitation, and dry events on wetland CH4 dynamics by investigating the effects of both compound and discrete extreme‐events. We use long‐term climate data to identify extreme‐events and 45 eddy covariance sites data sets sourced from the FLUXNET‐CH4 database and Ameriflux project to assess impacts on wetland CH4 emissions. These findings reveal that compound hot + dry extreme‐events lead to large increases in daily CH4 emissions. However, per event, discrete dry‐only extreme‐events cause the largest total decrease in CH4 emissions, due to their long duration. Despite dry‐only extreme‐events leading to an overall reduction in CH4 emissions, enhanced fluxes are often observed for the first days of dry‐only extreme‐events. These effects differ depending on wetland type, where marsh sites tend to be sensitive to most types of extreme‐events. Lagged impacts are significant for at least the 12 months following several types of extreme‐events. These findings have implications for understanding how extreme‐event impacts may evolve in the context of climate change, where changes in the frequency and intensity of temperature and precipitation extreme‐events are already observed. With increasing occurrences of enhanced CH4 fluxes in response to hot‐only extreme‐events and hot + wet extreme‐events and fewer occurrences of reduced CH4 fluxes during cold‐only extreme‐events, the impact of wetland CH4 emissions on climate warming may be increasing. Key Points: Compound extreme‐events (e.g., hot + dry extreme‐events) cause large impacts on daily CH4 emissions relative to discrete extreme‐eventsDry‐only extreme‐events show large total decreases in CH4 emissions due to the long duration of events, despite initial flux increasesLagged impacts are significant for at least the 12 months following most types of extreme‐events [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of design and experimental studies carried out to modernize welding equipment to increase the reliability of operation in site conditions and improve ergonomic performance. The results of improving the technology and technique of welding vertical joints with forced weld formation in order to increase the efficiency of the process and expand its technological capabilities, as well as improve the sanitary and hygienic working conditions of the welder-operator are presented. The A-1150 and AD343 machines were modernized and prototypes of the machines were manufactured to create new specialized assembly welding equipment based on a modern element base in compliance with ergonomic requirements. The study of the macrostructure of the welded joints showed that the weld metal is dense, and no defects in the form of lacks of fusion, cracks, pores, nonmetallic inclusions, etc. were found. The main advantages of the proposed method compared to ESW and the method of welding with forced flux-cored wire formation are shown. The technology and equipment for submerged arc welding with forced formation of vertical joints of low-carbon low-alloy steels with a thickness of 12-80 mm have been developed and successfully implemented in factory and site conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Los Angeles is a major hotspot for ozone and particulate matter air pollution in the United States. Ozone and PM2.5 in this region have not improved substantially for the past decade, despite a reduction in vehicular emissions of their precursors, NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This reduction in traditional sources has made the current emission mixture of air pollutant precursors more uncertain. To map and quantify emissions of a wide range of VOCs in this urban area, we performed airborne eddy covariance measurements with wavelet analysis. VOC fluxes measured include tracers for source categories, such as traffic, vegetation, and volatile chemical products (VCPs). Mass fluxes were dominated by oxygenated VOCs, with ethanol contributing ∼29% of the total. In terms of OH reactivity and aerosol formation potential, terpenoids contributed more than half. Observed fluxes were compared with two commonly used emission inventories: the California Air Resources Board inventory and the combination of the Biogenic Emission Inventory System with the Fuel-based Inventory of Vehicle Emissions combined with Volatile Chemical Products (FIVE-VCP). The comparison shows mismatches regarding the amount, spatial distribution, and weekend effects of observed VOC emissions with the inventories. The agreement was best for typical transportation related VOCs, while discrepancies were larger for biogenic and VCP-related VOCs.

Over the past few decades, climate warming has driven alterations in both the discharge volume and biogeochemical composition of Arctic riverine fluxes. This study investigated the content of macro- and microelements in the lower reaches of the Ob River (western Siberia). Seasonal sampling was performed over a four-year period (2020–2023) during the main hydrological seasons (winter low water, spring-summer floods, and early fall low water) at three river stations. The results revealed significant seasonal variations in the elemental content of the Ob River water associated with changes in catchment inputs, physical and chemical conditions of the aquatic environment, and the amount and composition of incoming suspended sediment. During high water flow events in the Ob River, the concentration of suspended solids increased substantially. During the winter period when the Ob River was ice-covered, a two- to three-fold rise was observed in the concentration of Na, Mg, Ca, K, Si, and Mn. Having accounted for these seasonal variations in water chemistry, we were able to refine our estimates of elemental export to the Arctic Ocean. Compared to estimates from previous studies, we observed 2.3-fold higher dissolved loads of Mn, and the dissolved loads were higher by 2.1-fold for Zn, 1.6-fold for Fe, and 1.4-fold for Pb. The observed rise in elemental export is likely attributable to a confluence of factors, including permafrost thaw, enhanced water inflow from wetland catchments, and intensifying snowfall leading to increased flood runoff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of 56 atmospheric deposition samples were collected on a yearly basis from the Baicheng-Songyuan areas, Jilin Province, Northeast China. Each sample was subdivided into wet (soluble) and dry (insoluble) fractions, and the concentrations of toxic trace elements including As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn in both fractions were analyzed. The bulk fluxes and ecological and human health risk of these toxic trace elements in atmospheric deposition were evaluated. The bulk deposition fluxes of toxic trace elements decreased in the order of Mn > Zn > Cr > Pb > Cu > Ni > As > Co >Mo > Cd > Se > Hg. The fluxes of toxic trace elements in dry fraction accounted for 74.7–99.9% of their bulk deposition fluxes, indicating that the atmospheric deposition of toxic trace elements in the study area is predominantly dry atmospheric deposition. The mean values of the geo-accumulation index (Igeo) and enrichment factor showed moderately heavy contamination with Cd via dry atmospheric deposition, but no contamination from other toxic trace elements; Cd and Hg in dry atmospheric deposition were in the moderate to considerable ecological risk levels, while other trace elements were at low ecological risk levels. The health risk assessment showed that the effects of toxic trace elements in dry atmospheric deposition via three exposure pathways were in the order of ingestion > inhalation > dermal contact for adults and children. The mean values of hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) of toxic trace elements via three pathways were less than one, indicating that their non-carcinogenic risks in dry atmospheric deposition may be low or negligible for adults and children. The mean values of carcinogenic risk (CR) and total carcinogenic risk (TCR) of As and Cr via the three pathways for adults and children were between 10−6 and 10−4, indicating that the carcinogenic risk levels of As and Cr were tolerable or acceptable, and the mean TCR value of Cd through the three pathways for adult and children was less than 10−6, implying that the carcinogenic risk level of Cd was negligible. Mn, Ni, Cr, and Co in dry atmospheric deposition were mainly contributed from the crustal sources, while As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mo, Pb, Se, and Zn in dry atmospheric deposition were derived from both crustal and anthropogenic sources. The results obtained in this study advocate the necessity for monitoring atmospheric deposition in some rural areas, and also provide a scientific basis for controlling contamination posed by toxic trace elements in dry atmospheric deposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public data from sixty tropical rivers were used to explore variations in C, N, and P and the potential impact of anthropogenic activities over a decade on freshwater bodies. The results showed the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) varying between 2.7–73.0 mg C l−1; whereas Total Nitrogen observations showed concentrations between 0.9 and 32.0 mg N l−1 and Total Phosphorus showed a higher frequency of data in the range of 0.02–0.4 mg P l−1. The annual total C load (TC) was estimated at 32.7 Tg C yr−1, where dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) accounted for 69% of TC and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) contributed 22%. The stoichiometry showed P depletion relative to C and/or N in 39 of the sixty rivers (65%). This was further supported by the fact that most catchments had TOC values > 50% (C/N/P = 100%). A significant trend was found for yearly fluxes of TOC for the period 2008–2018 (Mann–Kendall test; p = 0.0006; α = 0.05). Land-use and cover at period 2008–2018 indicated a trend of increasing anthropized area of 4%, whereas the natural area decreased by 3.1%. The organic load trend analysis showed 85% of municipalities with a positive trend, this high rate in the remaining organic load is indicative of urban and agricultural in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in the vertical and meridional temperature gradients of the atmosphere drive competing influences on storm-track activity. We apply local eddy energetics to the ERA5, JRA-55, MERRA-2, and NCEP-2 reanalyses during 1980–2020 to determine the locations, magnitudes, and trends of the energy transfer mechanisms for synoptic-scale eddies. Eddy kinetic energy (EKE) increases more rapidly in the Southern Hemisphere at all altitudes and seasons, with larger increases during austral winter and spring. In the Northern Hemisphere, increases occur within the Atlantic and Pacific storm tracks at pressures below 300 hPa but only during boreal winter and spring and confined within a narrow zonal band; EKE decreases during boreal summer and fall. Most EKE changes correspond with trends in baroclinic energy conversion upstream of storm tracks and appear to align with increases in the growth rate of the most unstable baroclinic mode. Barotropic energy conversion of EKE to the mean flow becomes locally more intense downstream of the storm tracks. Conversion of EKE to long-period eddies plays a minor role averaged over a hemisphere but can be important locally. The primary strengthening pathway for removal of EKE is a combination of surface friction and viscous dissipation. The increased baroclinic conversion in the Southern Hemisphere appears related to upper-level tropical temperature increases. In the Northern Hemisphere, increased baroclinic conversion is enabled by a combination of increased vertical heat fluxes and a region of temperature increases within 30°–60°N. Significance Statement: Traveling atmospheric disturbances arrange into storm tracks that determine the weather in the midlatitudes. Storm tracks are evolving in time due to anthropogenic warming; however, the location and strength of temperature changes compete for influence on the storm tracks. A framework to quantify the mechanisms of generation of kinetic energy contained by eddies pinpoints the extent of storm-track evolution. Storm tracks generally strengthen across the planet but have increased the most in the Southern Hemisphere. Strengthening in the Northern Hemisphere is limited to the winter in a narrow latitudinal band, because of warming in the Arctic that reduces the primary instability that drives eddies. The locations of northern warming and storm-track strengthening suggest a role for tropical dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of solderability is rigorously defined, accompanied by the proposal of quantitative criteria for its assessment. A comprehensive categorization of solderable materials into three distinct groups—namely, easily solderable, moderately solderable, and unsolderable—is proposed based on solderability parameters. Practical recommendations are given for the effective deployment of solderability testing methodologies across a spectrum of materials and electronic components. Detailed expositions are offered on the methods employed in the evaluation of solderability, encompassing solder immersion, measurement of solder spreading area, and assessment of capillary penetration into gaps. Schematic representations of these evaluation techniques, alongside descriptions of the requisite apparatus for their implementation, are presented. Furthermore, tabulated data on the solder spreading factors for diverse categories of chemical and electroplated coatings, including hot tinning, are given. Prolonged storage may lead to the formation of oxide films on the surface of coatings, thereby deteriorating solderability. To enhance the quality of electroplated coatings, it is recommended to employ periodic currents in nonstationary electrolysis modes during the deposition of electroplated coatings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this chapter, we comprehensively discuss the primary varieties of solders and fluxes utilized in the fabrication of electrical connections within electronic modules. Particular emphasis is placed on the challenges associated with the use of lead-free soldering materials. A potential resolution to these challenges involves the modification of solder compositions, potentially transitioning towards nanoscale architectures. A promising avenue of exploration lies in the utilization of water-based fluxes and flux gels. Water-based fluxes containing surfactant additives offer notable advantages, particularly in their application via spray mechanisms. They exhibit robust stability and mitigate thermal shock occurrences during soldering operations. Furthermore, we delve into the characteristics of solder pastes employed in the surface mounting of electronic modules, elucidating their application methodologies, operational considerations, and optimal storage practices. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive overview of conductive adhesives utilized in the formation of contact connections. The chapter also examines the primary types of mounting microwires employed in ultrasonic and thermosonic microwelding processes, alongside outlining the role of protective liquids in the cleaning of connections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how forest ecosystems respond to environmental factors, particularly in the context of global climate change, is essential for devising effective mitigation strategies. This study focuses on quantifying the interaction between forest ecosystems and atmospheric gases. To achieve our objectives, we are using the eddy covariance (EC) flux method to measure air turbulence and gas concentrations above the forest canopy at the Station for Measuring Ecosystem-Atmosphere Relations (SMEAR) in southern Estonia. We apply a flux footprint (FFP) model to describe the spatial extent and position of the surface area contributing to the turbulent flux measurements. The FFP analysis provides valuable insights into the long-term changes in SMEAR Estonia, the FFP and its relationship with forest management and land use changes. Our findings reveal that the FFP area varies from year to year due to changes in wind speed and direction, affecting the contribution of different land cover elements to the overall FFP. The average changes in the FFP area at a height of 30 meters were approximately 4.9%, while those at a height of 70 meters were only 1.6%. Moreover, human activities, such as thinning and clear-cutting, influence the growing stock and increment of forest stands.

Accumulating evidence for trade‐offs involving metabolic traits has demonstrated their importance in the evolution of organisms. Metabolic models with different levels of complexity have already been considered when investigating mechanisms that explain various metabolic trade‐offs. Here we provide a systematic review of modelling approaches that have been used to study and explain trade‐offs between: (i) the kinetic properties of individual enzymes, (ii) rates of metabolic reactions, (iii) the rate and yield of metabolic pathways and networks, (iv) different metabolic objectives in single organisms and in metabolic communities, and (v) metabolic concentrations. In providing insights into the mechanisms underlying these five types of metabolic trade‐offs obtained from constraint‐based metabolic modelling, we emphasize the relationship of metabolic trade‐offs to the classical black box Y‐model that provides a conceptual explanation for resource acquisition–allocation trade‐offs. In addition, we identify several pressing concerns and offer a perspective for future research in the identification and manipulation of metabolic trade‐offs by relying on the toolbox provided by constraint‐based metabolic modelling for single organisms and microbial communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of design and experimental studies carried out to modernize welding equipment to increase the reliability of operation in installation conditions and improve ergonomic performance. The results of improving the technology and technique of welding vertical joints with forced seam formation in order to increase the productivity of the process and expand its technological capabilities, as well as improve the sanitary and hygienic working conditions of the welder-operator are presented. The A-1150 and AD343 machines were modernized and prototypes of the machines were manufactured to create new specialized assembly welding equipment based on a modern element base in compliance with ergonomic requirements. The study of the macrostructure of the welded joints showed that the weld metal is dense, and no defects in the form of gaps, cracks, pores, non-metallic inclusions, etc. were found. The main advantages of the proposed method in comparison with ESW and the method of welding with forced cored wire formation are shown. The technology and equipment for submerged arc welding with forced forming of vertical joints of low-carbon low-alloy steels with a thickness of 12...80 mm have been developed and successfully implemented in factory and installation conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

TiO2 inclusion formation in the weld pool is required to produce potent nucleation sites for acicular ferrite microstructure formation. Weld metal oxygen content must be limited to ensure acceptable materials properties, although sufficient oxygen is required for inclusion formation. Weld pool oxygen is sourced from the decomposition of flux oxides. Weld metal oxygen is controlled with flux chemistry formulation by CaF2 dilution of oxides. In conventional submerged arc welding (SAW), the flux is the source of weld metal Ti. Transfer of Ti from the slag appears to be limited to 400 parts per million (ppm). SAW modification by metal powder additions changes the element transfer reactions. Thermochemical analysis is applied to explain the limitations in Ti transfer from the slag, compared to improved reaction conditions for Ti element transfer in the aluminum‐assisted Ti alloying of weld metal. Low TiO2 activity due to low flux TiO2 content from CaF2 dilution and Ti loss from Ti‐fluoride gas formation limits Ti transfer from slag. Aluminum‐assisted alloying of the weld metal shifts the gas composition from Ti‐fluoride formation to Al‐fluoride formation and lowers the system partial oxygen pressure to increase the weld metal Ti content, with acceptable ppm O remaining in the weld metal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Municipal sewage sludge has a high content of phosphorus, which has a high utilization value. However, this useful resource is always wasted during sludge landfill and incineration processes. In this study, lime was used to regulate the stability of sludge and lime-dried sludge (LDS) was used as a substitute for raw meal and sintering additive for cement clinker production. The variation of phosphorus content or concentration and its threshold level in LDS was investigated. The results showed that after lime drying, 90% of the phosphorus in the sludge existed in the form of inorganic phosphorus (IP), of which 80% was in the stable apatite state. More than 85% of the phosphorus in LDS was eutectic with clinker, avoiding secondary pollution in the synergistic process of cement kiln. The addition of LDS as a phosphorus sintering flux for clinker plays a good role in promoting the formation of bauxite in clinker and improving the burnability of raw materials. The addition of up to 15 wt.% of LDS containing 0.53% P2O5 to cement raw meal does not affect the clinker reaction. As an important flux in cement production, LDS can save phosphate rock and replace flux as a cement sintering ingredient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estuaries are the main gateway of nutrients into marine coastal waters. Human activities and biodegradation processes in coastal freshwater and mangrove swamps are the major sources of nutrients. This study examines the sources, sinks and flux rates of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and silicon (Si) through the interfaces: river estuary, mangrove estuary and ocean estuary. Measurements of the concentrations of nutrients and water velocity were made near the surface on an hourly basis, and then integrated over the flood and ebb flows over the cross-sectional area and a budget estimated over the tidal cycle, at the three interfaces. The results indicated that freshwater swamps, along the river basin, and mangrove swamps were the major source of nitrate in the estuary; the urban sewage effluent was the major source of phosphate; major sources of silicate were the freshwater swamps and coastal ocean waters. Mangrove swamp showed a tendency to retain phosphate, confirming the hypothesis that mangroves are effective sewage filters and pollutant retainers. The river exported nitrate into the estuary at a rate of 59 tons per tidal cycle, and then the estuary as a whole exported nitrate into the coastal waters at a rate of 68 tons per tidal cycle. The present study contributes to the explanation of the observed high coastal productivity of the Sofala Bank and to the development of prognostic and predictive models to quantify and predict the nutrient export to – and productivity of – coastal waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review is based investigations on the Western Isles, Scotland, by Martin Martin, a notable Scottish Highlander, academic and medical doctor, of the 17th–18th century. His extensive observations of the geography and peoples of these Isles were recorded in his books, "On the Description of the Western Islands of Scotland Circa 1695" and "A Late Voyage to St Kilda". In these books and subsequent papers there were some noteworthy observations on the occurrence (and as he says non-occurrence) of "epidemical" diseases and conditions afflicting the peoples of The Isle of Skye and the Western Isles of Scotland in this period, and these are discussed in this review. Martin also gives details of a wide variety of remedies that were observed or reported by inhabitants around that time. Some of these remedies are interesting for their relevance to the period but others are of doubtful merit. These are reviewed here more for their significance in the understanding of the diseases and conditions of humans and even in some cases animals at that time. Introductions by Charles Withers and R.W. Munro, 11 and re-assessments of the contributions of Martin and colleagues of that time have given insight into the health and condition of peoples of the Western Isles of Scotland(the Occidental) (Martin 1695; Martin 1716). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant litter could be a potential source of atmospheric volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Previous studies are mostly restricted to forest litter, but VOC budget of wetlands, especially freshwater wetlands, resulting from litter decomposition remains largely unexplored. Here we performed in-situ VOC flux measurements in a freshwater wetland and three treatments including A (no litter addition), B (1.4 kg litter) and C (2.8 kg litter) were designed to investigate impacts of litter decomposition on wetland-atmosphere exchange of VOCs. During year-round litter decomposition, average fluxes of net VOCs for B and C were 5.93±3.13 µg m-2 h-1 and 8.30±4.00 µg m-2 h-1, respectively, significantly higher than that of A (2.90±2.74 µg m-2 h-1). These results suggested that freshwater wetland was a potential source of atmospheric VOCs and litter decomposition enhanced VOC release. Net VOC flux showed clear seasonal patterns and was highly correlated with ambient temperature (p<0.05). In general, higher positive VOC fluxes were observed in hot summer, while lower positive VOC fluxes or negative VOC fluxes were observed in cold winter. Moreover, the release (positive flux) or uptake (negative flux) of VOCs varied to chemical groups. Specifically, non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) including alkanes, alkenes and aromatics showed positive net fluxes, and increased with added litter. Halocarbons showed a negative net flux in A, but positive net fluxes in B and C. While oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) showed negative net fluxes in both A and B, and switched to a positive flux in C. Positive net fluxes of volatile organic sulfide compounds (VOSCs) were observed in three treatments. According to flux variations of specific VOC group, it has been suggested that temperature-driven biotic and abiotic processes co-modulated VOC release or uptake occurring in the freshwater wetland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

These lecture notes provide a pedagogical introduction, with exercises, to the techniques used in attempts to construct vacua with stabilized moduli in string theory. The reader is only assumed to have a basic knowledge of general relativity, geometry and field theory. We emphasize physical arguments and focus on the latest developments involving the Swampland program that point to a tension for the existence of AdS vacua with small extra dimensions or dS vacua with parametric control. We include a brief summary of the current status of these thorny issues. Unlike many other reviews we make almost no use of the technicalities associated to supersymmetric geometries. These notes are largely based on lectures given at the CERN Winter School on Supergravity, Strings and Gauge Theory and in the Tehran School on Swampland Program held in the summer of 2022. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contrast to fairly good knowledge of dissolved carbon and major elements in great Arctic rivers, seasonally resolved concentrations of many trace elements remain poorly characterized, hindering assessment of the current status and possible future changes in the hydrochemistry of the Eurasian Arctic. To fill this gap, here we present results for a broad suite of trace elements in the largest rivers of the Russian Arctic (Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Kolyma). For context, we also present results for major elements that are more routinely measured in these rivers. Water samples for this study were collected during an international campaign called PARTNERS from 2004 through 2006. A comparison of element concentrations obtained for Arctic rivers in this study with average concentrations in the world's rivers shows that most elements in the Arctic rivers are similar to or significantly lower than the world average. The mineral content of the three greatest rivers (Ob, Yenisey, and Lena) varies within a narrow range (from 107 mg/L for Yenisey to 123 mg/L for Ob). The Kolyma's mineral content is significantly lower (52.4 mg/L). Fluxes of all major and trace elements were calculated using average concentrations and average water discharge for the 2004–2006 period. Based on these flux estimates, specific export (i.e., t/km2/y) for most of the elements was greatest for the Lena, followed by the Yenisey, Ob, and Kolyma in decreasing order. Element pairwise correlation analysis identified several distinct groups of elements depending on their sources and relative mobility in the river water. There was a negative correlation between Fe and DOC concentration in the Ob River, which could be linked to different sources of these components in this river. The annual yields of major and trace elements calculated for each river were generally consistent with values assessed for other mid-size and small rivers of the Eurasian subarctic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tidal salt marshes produce and emit CH4. Therefore, it is critical to understand the biogeochemical controls that regulate CH4 spatial and temporal dynamics in wetlands. The prevailing paradigm assumes that acetoclastic methanogenesis is the dominant pathway for CH4 production, and higher salinity concentrations inhibit CH4 production in salt marshes. Recent evidence shows that CH4 is produced within salt marshes via methylotrophic methanogenesis, a process not inhibited by sulfate reduction. To further explore this conundrum, we performed measurements of soil–atmosphere CH4 and CO2 fluxes coupled with depth profiles of soil CH4 and CO2 pore water gas concentrations, stable and radioisotopes, pore water chemistry, and microbial community composition to assess CH4 production and fate within a temperate tidal salt marsh. We found unexpectedly high CH4 concentrations up to 145,000 μmol mol−1 positively correlated with S2− (salinity range: 6.6–14.5 ppt). Despite large CH4 production within the soil, soil–atmosphere CH4 fluxes were low but with higher emissions and extreme variability during plant senescence (84.3 ± 684.4 nmol m−2 s−1). CH4 and CO2 within the soil pore water were produced from young carbon, with most Δ14C‐CH4 and Δ14C‐CO2 values at or above modern. We found evidence that CH4 within soils was produced by methylotrophic and hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis. Several pathways exist after CH4 is produced, including diffusion into the atmosphere, CH4 oxidation, and lateral export to adjacent tidal creeks; the latter being the most likely dominant flux. Our findings demonstrate that CH4 production and fluxes are biogeochemically heterogeneous, with multiple processes and pathways that can co‐occur and vary in importance over the year. This study highlights the potential for high CH4 production, the need to understand the underlying biogeochemical controls, and the challenges of evaluating CH4 budgets and blue carbon in salt marshes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The myth about special quantum mechanics, different from classical mechanics, has been debunked. In fact, there is a branch of classical mechanics, which belongs to wave theory and considers a particle-like wave, rather than a particle having the properties of a wave. New quantum mechanics, free from unnecessary entities, assumptions, and hypotheses, makes it possible to get rid of many accumulated contradictions in theoretical physics, physical chemistry, and quantum chemistry and expands the methodological base of engineering disciplines by opening up new ways and means for solving practical problems, as shown by the example of consideration of chemical bonding as a resonant-selective interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how forest ecosystems respond to environmental factors, particularly in the context of global climate change, is essential for devising effective mitigation strategies. This study focuses on quantifying the interaction between forest ecosystems and atmospheric gases. To achieve our objectives, we are using the eddy covariance (EC) flux method to measure air turbulence and gas concentrations above the forest canopy at the Station for Measuring Ecosystem-Atmosphere Relations (SMEAR) in southern Estonia. We apply a flux footprint (FFP) model to describe the spatial extent and position of the surface area contributing to the turbulent flux measurements. The FFP analysis provides valuable insights into the long-term changes in SMEAR Estonia, the FFP and its relationship with forest management and land use changes. Our findings reveal that the FFP area varies from year to year due to changes in wind speed and direction, affecting the contribution of different land cover elements to the overall FFP. The average changes in the FFP area at a height of 30 meters were approximately 4.9%, while those at a height of 70 meters were only 1.6%. Moreover, human activities, such as thinning and clear-cutting, influence the growing stock and increment of forest stands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vertical turbulent transfer of heat and momentum in the lower atmospheric boundary layer is accom-plished through intermittent sweep, ejection, outward interaction, and inward interaction events associated with turbulent updrafts and downdrafts. These events, collectively referred to as sweep–ejection dynamics, have been studied extensively in forested and nonforested environments and reported in the literature. However, little is known about the sweep–ejection dynamics that occur in response to turbulence regimes induced by wildland fires in forested and nonforested environments. This study attempts to fill some of that knowledge gap through analyses of turbulence data previously collected during three wildland (prescribed) fires that occurred in grassland and forested environments in Texas and New Jersey. Tower-based high-frequency (10 or 20 Hz) three-dimensional wind-velocity and temperature measurements are used to examine fre-quencies of occurrence of sweep, ejection, outward interaction, and inward interaction events and their actual contributions to the mean vertical turbulent fluxes of heat and momentum before, during, and after the passage of fire fronts. The observational results suggest that wildland fires in these environments can substantially change the sweep–ejection dynamics for turbulent heat and momentum fluxes that typically occur when no fires are present, especially the relative contributions of sweeps versus ejections in determining overall heat and momentum fluxes.

The article presents a compact and exhaustive interpretation of the foundations of energodynamics and shows that it significantly extends the horizons of natural science and opens new avenues to improve the scientific bases of chemical technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Water is a limited and critical resource in the western United States. To protect water access for millions of people and ecosystems, and to preserve our ability to irrigate millions of acres of cropland, policymakers and water managers require advanced weather and water prediction systems. To improve these forecast systems in high-altitude complex terrain, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has deployed instrumentation in the East River watershed of the Upper Colorado River basin as part of the Study of Precipitation, the Lower Atmosphere, and Surface for Hydrometeorology (SPLASH). SPLASH observations are being used to advance fundamental understanding of mountain weather and water and to advance predictive capabilities across weather and climate time scales. Water is a critical resource that causes significant challenges to inhabitants of the western United States. These challenges are likely to intensify as the result of expanding population and climate-related changes that act to reduce runoff in areas of complex terrain. To better understand the physical processes that drive the transition of mountain precipitation to streamflow, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has deployed suites of environmental sensors throughout the East River watershed of Colorado as part of the Study of Precipitation, the Lower Atmosphere, and Surface for Hydrometeorology (SPLASH). This includes surface-based sensors over a network of five different observing sites, airborne platforms, and sophisticated remote sensors to provide detailed information on spatiotemporal variability of key parameters. With a 2-yr deployment, these sensors offer detailed insight into precipitation, the lower atmosphere, and the surface, and support the development of datasets targeting improved prediction of weather and water. Initial datasets have been published and are laying a foundation for improved characterization of physical processes and their interactions driving mountain hydrology, evaluation and improvement of numerical prediction tools, and educational activities. SPLASH observations contain a depth and breadth of information that enables a variety of atmospheric and hydrological science analyses over the coming years that leverage collaborations between national laboratories, academia, and stakeholders, including industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the sources, contamination and ecological risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) based on their spatiotemporal distribution in aquatic environment in the Wuhan section of the Yangtze River (WYR). The fugacity ratio evaluation indicated that sediment was secondary release sources of two- and three-ring PAHs and sinks of four- and five-ring PAHs. The total concentrations of PAHs (Σ16PAHs) ranged from 2.51 to 102.5 ng/L in water with the dominant contribution of 47.8% by two-ring PAHs. Σ16PAHs in sediments varied from 5.90 to 2926 ng/g with the contribution of 35.4% by four-ring PAHs. The higher levels of PAHs occurred around developed industrial areas during the wet season, which was related to local industrial emissions and influenced by rainfall/runoff. Annual flux of Σ16PAHs was estimated of 28.77 t. The PMF model analysis revealed that petroleum and industrial emissions were the dominant sources in water accounting for 58.5% of the total pollution, although traffic emission was the main source for sediment accounting for 44.6%. Risk assessments showed that PAHs in water were at low risks, whereas about 44% of the sediments were identified as medium risks. Therefore, energy structure adjustment and further implement of regulation and monitoring are necessary to reduce PAH emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Precipitation and the atmospheric moisture budget are analyzed for 40-yr periods of recent and future climate simulated by the 10 CMIP6 models from which the vertically integrated moisture flux data are available. This allows new assessments of this important atmospheric transport, which can typically only be approximated. Seasonal climatological fields are compared with those from the ERA5 reanalysis. Using the four-season average M skill score for the globe, precipitation from the 10 models is similar in skill to that from a further 25 models. The scores for six moisture variables, including flux and its convergence, demonstrate global skill for each model. The 10-model average fields have better skill than any individual model. Changes are calculated for 2040–79 under the SSP5-8.5 forcing scenario. The focus is on the 10-model average scaled as a projection of change for a global warming of 2°C. The changes in precipitation, temperature, and pressure in each season are largely consistent with those from the larger ensemble. The changes in flux, convergence, water column, and winds at three levels are presented. The role of convergence in balancing precipitation changes over many land regions is evident. Flux, convergence, and precipitation are shown in detail for selected cases, including central North America, the South American monsoon, southern Africa in summer, southern South America in winter, Europe in summer, and both polar regions. Typically, flux is enhanced, but the associated convergence may shift. The production of the vertically integrated flux vector as a standard output from climate models is supported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents observational findings of air–sea turbulent heat flux anomalies during the onset of the South China Sea summer monsoon (SCSSM) in 2021 and explains the mechanism for high-resolution heat flux variations. Turbulent heat flux discrepancies are not uniform throughout the basin but indicate a significant regional disparity in the South China Sea (SCS), which also experiences evident year-to-year variability. Based on buoy- and cruise-based air–sea measurements, high-temporal-resolution (less than hourly) anomalies in the latent heat flux during the SCSSM burst are unexpectedly determined by sea–air humidity differences instead of wind effects under near-neutral and mixed marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) stability conditions. However, latent heat anomalies are mainly induced by wind speed under changing MABL conditions. The sensible heat flux is much weaker, with its anomalies dominated by sea–air temperature differences regardless of the boundary layer condition. The observational results are used to examine the discrepancies in turbulent heat fluxes and associated air–sea variables in reanalysis products. The comparisons indicate that latent and sensible heat fluxes in the reanalysis are overestimated by approximately 55 and 3 W m−2, respectively. These overestimations are mainly induced by higher estimates of sea–air humidity/temperature differences. The relative humidity is underestimated by approximately 4.2% in the two high-resolution reanalysis products. The higher SST (near-surface specific humidity) and lower air temperature (specific air humidity) eventually lead to higher estimates of sea–air humidity/temperature differences (1.75 g kg−1/0.25°C), which are the dominant factors controlling the variations in the air–sea turbulent heat fluxes. Significance Statement: Air–sea interactions are significant in predicting the onset of East Asian monsoon systems, including the SCSSM. During the SCSSM in 2021, four buoys and cruise observations are used to investigate anomalies in the latent and sensible heat fluxes. The physical mechanism of the variations in turbulent heat fluxes under different MABL stability conditions is explored in this study. The humidity and wind speed anomalies play roles under mixed boundary conditions in determining the high-resolution variations in latent heat fluxes. Based on these observational results, the heat fluxes and associated air–sea variables from reanalysis products are compared to identify the differences in the operational systems. These comparison results can help improve the reanalysis to obtain better monsoon predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global warming intensifies atmospheric water vapor transport between ocean and land, which increases the likelihood of extreme precipitation and floods. However, accurate estimations of water vapor exchange between ocean and land are difficult due to the lack of available data and effective methods. This study developed a novel eight-direction-vector decomposition algorithm for calculating water vapor flux between ocean and land based on the ERA5 dataset, and the results showed that global water vapor exchange between ocean and land had significantly increased in the past 40 years, except for Antarctica. During 1980–2018, the average annual net water vapor inflow from ocean to land (Qnet) was 44.68 × 1015 kg yr−1, and Qnet increased at a rate of 1.48 × 1015 kg yr−1 decade−1. The intensified atmospheric water vapor exchange between ocean and land was directly caused by the increase of atmospheric water vapor content, which largely depended on the rising air temperature, and it was found that water vapor flux between ocean and land increased by over 8% K−1 with the increasing air temperature at the global average. This study also identified El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) as an important contributor to the global ocean–land water vapor exchange anomalies. A strong El Niño event (MEI = 1) can result in a 1.36 × 1015 kg yr−1 (3.03%) decrease in Qnet, and a strong La Niña event (MEI = −1) can increase Qnet by 1.38 × 1015 kg yr−1 (3.09%). The eight-direction-vector decomposition algorithm was effective in ocean–land water vapor flux estimations at different spatial and temporal scales, which could provide great insights into the mechanisms of extreme precipitation events. Significance Statement: This study developed a novel approach on water vapor flux estimation (i.e., the eight-direction-vector decomposition algorithm) and achieved a high-temporal–spatial-resolution estimation of water vapor flux between ocean and land. It was found that water vapor flux between ocean and land was intensified by increasing air temperature at a rate of 8% K−1, and El Niño yielded an anomaly low net water vapor input from ocean to land at the global scale. The algorithm developed in this study can be used for estimating water vapor fluxes at different spatial and temporal scales, which is crucial for evaluating the role of water vapor flux on formations for extreme weather (e.g., torrential rainstorms and heat waves) and climatic extremes (e.g., droughts and floods). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus of this paper is to briefly discuss the major advances in scientific thinking regarding: a) processes governing the fate and transport of mercury in the environment; b) advances in measurement methods; and c) how these advances in knowledge fit in within the context of the Minamata Convention on Mercury. Details regarding the information summarized here can be found in the papers associated with this Virtual Special Issue of STOTEN.

Recent results using wind and sea surface temperature data from satellites and high-resolution coupled models suggest that mesoscale ocean–atmosphere interactions affect the locations and evolution of storms and seasonal precipitation over continental regions such as the western US and Europe. The processes responsible for this coupling are difficult to verify due to the paucity of accurate air–sea turbulent heat and moisture flux data. These fluxes are currently derived by combining satellite measurements that are not coincident and have differing and relatively low spatial resolutions, introducing sampling errors that are largest in regions with high spatial and temporal variability. Observational errors related to sensor design also contribute to increased uncertainty. Leveraging recent advances in sensor technology, we here describe a satellite mission concept, FluxSat, that aims to simultaneously measure all variables necessary for accurate estimation of ocean–atmosphere turbulent heat and moisture fluxes and capture the effect of oceanic mesoscale forcing. Sensor design is expected to reduce observational errors of the latent and sensible heat fluxes by almost 50%. FluxSat will improve the accuracy of the fluxes at spatial scales critical to understanding the coupled ocean–atmosphere boundary layer system, providing measurements needed to improve weather forecasts and climate model simulations.

Abstract Since 1950 humans have introduced 8300 teragrams (Tg, 1012 g, millions of metric tons) of plastic polymers into the Earth’s surface environment. Accounting for the dispersal and fate of produced plastics and fragmented microplastics in the environment has been challenging. Recent studies have fueled debate on the global river budget for plastic transport to oceans, the sinking and beaching of marine plastics and the emission and deposition of atmospheric microplastics. Here we define a global plastics cycle and budget, and develop a box model of plastics cycling, including the fragmentation and transport of large and small microplastics (LMP, SMP) within coupled terrestrial, oceanic and atmospheric reservoirs. We force the model with historical plastics production and waste data, and explore how macroplastics, LMP and SMP propagate through the reservoirs from 1950 to 2015 and beyond. We find that considerable amounts of plastics reside most likely in the deep ocean (82 Tg), in shelf sediments (116 Tg), on beaches (1.8 Tg) and, as a result of marine emissions, in the remote terrestrial surface pool (28 Tg). Business as usual or maximum feasible reduction and discard scenarios show similar, 4-fold increases in atmospheric and aquatic ecosystem SMP exposure by 2050, because future plastics mobilization is controlled by releases from the large terrestrial discarded plastics reservoir (3500 Tg). Zero-release from 2025 onwards illustrates recovery of P and LMP reservoirs on centennial time scales, while SMP continue to cycle in air, soil, and surface ocean for millennia. Limiting dramatic future dispersal of plastics requires, in addition to reducing use and waste, remediation of the large terrestrial legacy plastics pool.