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The coastal sight towers and the defensive fortresses were in the past distinctive elements of the coastal landscape. They were distributed in particular along the northern coast of the Mediterranean and were built for sighting purposes from the XVIth century against the raids of barbarian pirates who had their bases in the Maghreb coast.A mineralogical and petrographic characterization of the stone materials and mortars of two coastal towers (i.e. Capodomo and Calamoresca) in ruins of Monte Argentario is shown in the present paper. It was found that local lithotypes (e.g. Calcare Cavernoso, calcitic grey marble, dark grey dolostones) were used as building stones and for production of mortars. A detailed study on mortars was conducted by means of high quality polycrystalline X-ray diffraction, optical and electron microscopy. The analysis reveals the presence of Ca and Mg lime-based mortars in the ruins of Capodomo tower, whereas only Ca lime-based mortars were identified in Calamoresca tower.Reaching the towers walking along the paths allows us to know a good part of the lithologies present in the promontory due to the emerging sites in the local morphology; emersion was produced, both because particular lithologies are resistant to the erosion and also because of particular structural or tectonic elements.

In this paper, the unknown and peculiar construction technique employed in vernacular buildings of the Algerian region of Souf is addressed. Traditional architectures of this desert area are made o...

The vernacular architecture of the Souf region in Algeria, a desert environment where wood is rare, presents multiple heritage values due to the way in which local materials (especially the desert rose stone) are exploited to build houses and erect distinctive domes. Unfortunately, extensive damage and abandonment compromise the stability of these buildings and accelerate their disappearance, which would negatively affect the urban landscape and the identity of the region. In order to safeguard this unique vernacular heritage, the study focuses on the definition of the typical typology of building, its structural and geometric characteristics, explaining the constructive technique used. Recurrent damage and pathologies that threaten this building culture are also highlighted. Then, estimation of mechanical parameters of the desert rose stone masonry is carried out defining typical characteristics according to the evaluation of the respect of “the rule of the art”. Results are then used to perform numerical simulations of the structural behaviour of a typical building, through the finite element method with linear and nonlinear approaches. In particular, the structural behaviour of the dome has been investigated, being the most vulnerable element of the system.

The research examines the building materials of the ancient fortress known as Rocca Vecchia, in the Gorgona Island, built by the Republic of Pisa and commonly dated to the 13th century. Particular attention is paid to the composition of the artificial stone materials (bricks, bedding mortars, plasters and renders) in order to better understand and define the different construction phases. The results will be useful from the historical point of view and for the future conservation intervention which will have to involve a group of prisoners who will also have the task of the subsequent maintenance.

In this paper, the advances in the use of optical and electronic microscope for study of the minero-petrographic and microchemical features of lime binders of ancient mortars are discussed for various case studies. Mortars belonging to several historic periods and with different functions in building structures and archaeological sites were selected in order to verify the complementarity of optical and electronic microscope analyses applied to these artificial materials. The data obtained with the application of optical and microscope analyses were able to provide detailed and more precise information on the composition, structure, and texture of lime binders, highlighting the features of air hardening calcitic lime binder, air hardening magnesian lime binder, natural hydraulic lime binder, and air hardening binders with materials providing hydraulic characteristics added. Furthermore, a complete analysis and classification of the lime lumps was determined.

The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Firenze is externally decorated with white marble, green serpentinite and red limestones. These latter are constituted by marly and ammonitic limestones, c...

The earthen architecture widely spread in many countries of Europe, America, Asia, Africa, testifies to a particular material and immaterial culture. Nevertheless, it is a fragile heritage, which needs continuous maintenance. To encourage the preservation of such evidence of building techniques, an experimental campaign aimed at the development and evaluation of the performances of protective earthen plasters was undertaken. The durability of the plasters was improved through the addition of different additives, some of them traditional (such as lime and gypsum) and others innovative (geopolymers, enzymes), and resulting from industrial wastes (cement kiln dust). These additives have been selected considering low production costs and a reduced environmental impact, to improve the sustainability of the interventions. The performances of the earthen plasters in terms of efficacy (resistance to water erosion, water absorption, drilling, thermo-hygrometric cycles) and compatibility (changes in color and water vapor permeability) have been evaluated. Good performances were obtained by the different mixtures and, in particular, by those stabilized with gypsum. The results of this experimentation could find a useful application in the preservation of both ancient and new earthen built heritage.

The chapter describes the methos of charecterization of an earthen material, the f conservation problems of earthen architecture, the methods for the preventive conservation of earthen architecture and the traditional/innovative methods of conservation of this kind of material in architecture

[EN] The Melogno pass (“Colle del Melogno”) is located at 1026 m above sea level, between the high Val Bormida and the hinterland of the Finalese (province of Savona) and is one of the highest mountain passes in the Ligurian Alps. In ancient times, this zone was considered strategically important from the military point of view since it is located at the crossroads of many communication routes. In these areas, in November 1795, during the “Battle of Loano”, the French army, commanded by Andrea Massena and the allied army of Austria, prevailed over the Kingdom of Sardinia, led by Oliver Remigius von Wallis. However, the territory remained possession of the Kingdom of Sardinia and, between 1883 and 1895, the worsening of relations with France induced the government to erect, near the pass, three imposing fortifications (Tortagna, Settepani and Centrale) to prevent an entry into Piedmont by armies coming from the coast. For the same purpose other fortifications were erected near the passes of Tenda, Nava, Turchino and near the villages of Zuccarello, Altare and Vado. The most impressive among the three fortifications of Melogno pass is the Central Fort. It occupies all the saddle of the pass and it is crossed by the provincial road 490 connecting the coast of Finale Ligure to Piedmont. The fort, still of military property, is a listed historical artefact. It has a polygonal shape, with a main barrack developed on two floors. Four defensive and attacking emplacements were located outside the main complex, along a detached hill, with heavy artillery pointed towards the coast. The study will examine the natural and artificial stone materials used for the building through mineralogical and petrographic analysis and will verify both the variations occurred during the construction phases and the relations with the local supply sources.

Nell'ambito di una più ampia collaborazione con il Dipartimento di Architettura dell'Università di Firenze, l'Istituto di Scienze del Patrimonio Culturale del CNR ha effettuato un'indagine petrografica sulle malte provenienti dalle antiche mura e dal complesso del Giardino Scotto di Pisa, al fine di individuare materie prime e tecnologie impiegate nel confezionamento di questi materiali lapidei artificiali ed individuare similitudini/differenze tra i materiali impiegati nelle diverse fasi costruttive. I dati saranno utilizzati per predisporre un piano di restauro.

The aim of this this research is to verify the suitability of some treatments based on ammonium oxalate and ammonium phosphate for the consolidation and protection of the internal entrance of Palazzo Verità Montanari (1583) in Verona, made of Avesa Stone. Different application protocols of the two products have been compared (the product alone, in mutual sequence, in mixture). The efficacy and limitations of the treatments are discussed on the basis of the results obtained with various types of diagnostic analyzes, invasive and non-invasive, as part of a laboratory experimentation carried out on specimens of the same carbonate stone

Nell'ambito del progetto "¡Que no baje el telón! Conservación, gestión y mejora del patrimonio cultural de la ISA (CUBA)" condotto dall'Università di Firenze, Dipartimento di Architettura è stata richiesta all'Istituto di Scienze del Patrimonio Culturale la caratterizzazione mineralogico/petrografica di campioni di mattoni e malte prelevati presso la Facultad de Arte Teatral dell'Havana (Cuba) e l'individuazione delle procedure e dei prodotti più adatti per il loro restauro.

Il contributo sintetizza i risultati della campagna diagnostica realizzata su malte di allettamento e di rivestimento (intonaci) provenienti dal teatro di Luni al fine di comprendere le relazioni esistenti tra materie prime/tecnologie utilizzate nel confezionamento de11e malte e fasi costruttive.

The Noh-Gonbad Mosque is one of the oldest examples of Islamic architecture, and it is undoubtedly the most ancient mosque of Afghanistan, dated from 794 A.D., few decades after Muhammad's Hegira. With its particular building technologies and magnificent stucco decoration, it represents a masterpiece. In this paper, a part of the multidisciplinary restoration project is reported. In particular, the comprehensive investigation carried out to define mechanical, physical and chemical characteristics of building materials is presented. The key findings available in the literature on the birth of the mosque have been synthesised and linked to technological and constructive evidence collected on site, which suggests the purpose of realising a simple but yet impressive building. Using data gathered on the field together with experimental results it has been possible to identify the static consistency of the arcade system and carry out a preliminary vulnerability assessment.

Fired bricks have been used for construction purposes in China for at least two thousand years. Since themid-19th century the manufacture of bricks has shifted from an old to a new system. The unique Chineseblue brick has been gradually replaced by the European red brick and other modern products. This studyfocuses on Shanghai as a representative city in that transitional period, aims at addressing the true con-dition of the modern changes in China’s brick history and the heritage today.The paper presents the first results of an interdisciplinary investigation. Fourteen brick samples andone sample of raw material were studied with regard to the mineralogical, petrographic, chemical, phys-ical, mechanical characteristics, and the maximum firing temperature. It also makes measurements of thepresented soluble salts in the altered brick samples.Preliminary conclusions are drawn with regard to three critical issues: the provenance of the bricks, thehitherto undocumented changes in the manufacturing technology, and the condition of the brick materialin terms of conservation. ispartof: Construction & Building Materials vol:151 pages:789-800 status: published

Both Southern Italy and Central China feature historic rural settlements characterized by underground constructions with residential and service functions. Many of these areas are currently tackling economic, social and environmental problems, resulting in unemployment, disengagement, depopulation, marginalization or loss of cultural and biological diversity. Both in Europe and in China, policies for rural development address three core areas of intervention: agricultural competitiveness, environmental protection and the promotion of rural amenities through strengthening and diversifying the economic base of rural communities. The challenge is to create innovative pathways for regeneration based on raising awareness to inspire local rural communities to develop alternative actions to reduce poverty while preserving the unique aspects of their local environment and culture. In this view, cultural heritage can be a catalyst for the sustainable growth of the rural community. Through a series of projects on a national and international scale, the authors have addressed some of these problems by exchanging best practices in conservation, sustainable use and the enhancement of the underground heritage.

Indagini Diagnostiche finalizzate all'intervento di conservazione dell'Esedra della Cappella Espiatoria di Monza

The diagnostic campaign and the microclimatic monitoring in the hypogeum environment of the Mithraeum of Marino Laziale started in 2018. This suggestive and mysterious archaeological site, situated a few kilometres away from Rome, is not accessible to visitors yet [1]. The aim of the research is the definition of strategies for its fruition in compatibility with a conservation protocol planned according to the Municipality of Marino to finally support the opening of the Mithraeum. Because the site conditions are still compromised after 10 years from a preliminary diagnostic campaign and a previous restoration work, on the three paintings of this hypogeal environment a new diagnostic campaign was planned. The main risk of decay for the wall paintings was identified in the potential changing of the hypogeum environment equilibrium that could induce salts crystallisation on the painted surfaces and biological growth [2, 3]. In this paper the main results of the diagnostic campaign (optical microscopy, imaging techniques, portable FT-IR spectroscopy and XRD and bioluminometer (ATP), compared with previous diagnostic results (2008 campaign on the wall painting of Mithras and the Bull), and both correlated with microclimatic parameters are discussed.

In the present work, two kinds of hybrid polymeric–inorganic coatings containing TiO2 or SiO2 particles and prepared starting from two commercial resins (Alpha®SI30 and Bluesil®BP9710) were developed and applied to two kinds of mortars (an air-hardening calcic lime mortar [ALM] and a natural hydraulic lime mortar [HLM]) to achieve better performances in terms of water repellence and consequently damage resistance. The two pure commercial resins were also applied for comparison purposes. Properties of the coated materials and their performance were studied using different techniques such as contact angle measurements, capillary absorption test, mercury intrusion porosimetry, surface free energy, colorimetric measurements and water vapour permeability tests. Tests were also performed to determine the weathering effects on both the commercial and the hybrid coatings in order to study their durability. Thus, exposures to UV radiation, to UV radiation/condensed water cycles and to a real polluted atmospheric environment have been performed. The effectiveness of the hybrid SiO2 based coating was demonstrated, especially in the case of the HLM mortar.

The aim of this paper is to identify the mechanisms responsible for the chromatic alteration of Pietra Serena sandstone, the stone used in Florentine Renaissance architecture. This stone has a bluish-grey colour when fresh, but is often oxidized acquiring an ochre-brown or reddish colour on buildings. A mineralogical, chemical, petrographic and physical characterization was carried out on the blocks of Pietra Serena used for the Waldensian Church, located in the centre of Florence, showing a characteristic reddish colouring, and on samples from the quarry from which these blocks were extracted. Micro-Raman and SEM-EDS analyses were performed on the red surfaces of the samples in order to highlight the mineralogical and chemical transformations. The results confirmed that the chromatic alteration of Pietra Serena is caused by the mobilization of Fe 2+ (prevalent in the clay minerals that make up the matrix of this sandstone and in aluminosilicates such as biotite), which is easily oxidized to Fe 3+ in an oxidative environment. This is a consequence of a particular condition of decay, such as the presence of water, CO 2 , low pH.

An experimental approach in order to investigate the possibility that some Italian limestones were used for the production of Roman Cement is proposed. Three types of Pietra Alberese, a marly limestone used since Roman times for the production of "lime" in Tuscany (Italy), were selected. By burning of these stones, specimens of binders were realized. The characteristics of these binders were compared with the binder obtained by burning a French marly limestone commercially used for the production of Roman Cement. All samples of carbonate stones were preliminarily characterized from the chemical, mineralogical, and petrographic point of view. The colorimetric coordinates were measured on both rock samples and hardened binder samples. The analysis carried out shows that Pietra Alberese with an high content of clay minerals develops a similar microstructure with respect to that developed by the French marly limestone used for the production of Roman Cement.

Many architectonic structures of a unique beauty can be still admired on the pilgrimage route of the Via Francigena. In the previous ESRARC conference, in 2017, the conservation problems on landscape and religious buildings from Altopascio to Colle Val d'Elsa were examined. In this paper, the journey continues in southern Tuscany, precisely from Colle Val d'Elsa to the spectacular landscapes of Val d'Orcia, pointing out possible emergencies for safeguarding this precious cultural heritage.

The on-site assessment of the effectiveness and durability of conservation treatments have several drawbacks which have their origin in the demands of the owners (both from the aesthetical point of view and with the need to conclude the restoration as soon as possible), and in the requirements of the restorer related with the logistic of the yard and with the need to satisfy the owner demands. These aspects are often in conflict with the methodological approach used in the scientific framework for evaluate the performance of applied treatments. The aims of this paper is to suggest practical solutions, capable to overcome the previous problems in the assessment of the efficiency of the consolidating and protective treatments applied on the marly limestone ashlars of the Abbey of San Fruttuoso di Capodimonte (Genoa, Italy). The abbey is located at the bottom of a bay few meters from the see, therefore strongly exposed to the action of the marine aerosol and wave erosion. The consolidation and protection of the marly limestone building material was performed by testing several products both inorganic and organic. Preliminary tests were performed on laboratory samples. Afterwards, the same products were applied on selected ashlars of the facade in order to study their performance in a real condition. The products were ethyl silicate, ethyl silicate with polysiloxane, litium silicate, nanosilica, ammonium oxalate, ammonium phosphate, silane/siloxane, fluorelastomers and acrylic polymers and acrylic/siloxane. The study of the effect of the treatments on the stone samples was performed by non-destructive and micro-destructive methods, and an assessment procedure has been proposed.

In order to avoid both natural and artificial stone decay, mainly due to the interaction with atmospheric pollutants (both gases such as NOx and SO2 and particulate matter), polymeric materials have been widely studied as protective coatings enable to limit the penetration of fluids into the bulk material. In the current work, an air hardening calcic lime mortar (ALM) and a natural hydraulic lime mortar (HLM) were used as substrates, and commercially available Si-based resins (Alpha®SI30 and Silres®BS16) were adopted as protective agents to give hydrophobicity features to the artificial stones. Surface properties of coatings and their performance as hydrophobic agents were studied using different techniques such as contact angle measurements, capillary absorption test, mercury intrusion porosimetry, surface free energy, colorimetric measurements and water vapour permeability tests. Finally, some exposure tests to UV radiation and to real polluted atmospheric environments (a city centre and an urban background site) were carried out during a wintertime period (when the concentrations of the main atmospheric pollutants are higher) in order to study the durability of the coating systems applied. The effectiveness of the two commercial resins in reducing salt formation (sulphate and nitrate), induced by the interaction of the mortars with the atmospheric pollutants, was demonstrated in the case of the HLM mortar. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

The Vie Cave are a suggestive network of roads deeply entrenched in the rock, dating back to the Etruscan civilization; these ancient roads connect various settlements and necropolises existing mainly in the area of Sovana, Sorano and Pitigliano towns (Southern Tuscany, Italy). The Vie Cave are located in a peculiar geomorphological site, characterized by the presence of extensive pyroclastic deposits, which have been incised by a parallel network of deep gorges. In this paper, the geomorphological, geological and lithological setting of the Vie Cave area, where several Etruscan archaeological sites are found, are described. The precarious stability of the Vie Cave walls and the several archaeological structures carved into them, the high grade of decay shown by the constituent materials, together with the dense vegetation that has developed over the rocky scarps, are taken into account with the aim to provide a complete assessment of the conditions in which the site lies. Finally, we propose some targeted actions related to the preservation of this territory, showing so distinctive morphology, in order to protect the area from further decay to which it would be subjected if it remained abandoned.

This paper shows the results of a multidisciplinary study carried out on the mortars from the Late Roman Villa dell’Oratorio (fourth-sixth ad), an aristocratic mansion built in the lower Valdarno (Florence, Italy). Thirty-one bedding mortar and plaster samples were analysed through optical microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray powder diffraction and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy for determining the chemical, mineralogical and petrographic characteristics, while their main physical properties were measured by geotechnical procedures. The collected data indicates that the analysed mortars are made up of very fine to coarse river sand aggregate mixed with white to yellowish-white natural hydraulic lime binder mainly consisting of mixtures of prevailing calcite and hydraulic compounds. With regard to the origin of the raw materials, the aggregates were recognized to be selected Arno river sands, and the binders are the burning product of a local marly limestone (ex Alberese). Therefore, the mortars of the Late Roman Villa dell’Oratorio are one of the first uses of natural hydraulic lime in the lower Valdarno.