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Four ester cationic Gemini surfactants (EDQ‐n, n represents the carbon number in the raw fatty acid of 12, 14, 16 and 18) were synthesized from fatty acid, N, N‐dimethylethanolamine and 1, 4‐dibromobutane by two‐step reaction of esterification and quaternization. Their surface activities at air/water interface were investigated. The application performance such as water solubility, antistatic property, fabric softness, fabric whiteness, biodegradability, and antibacterial activities were tested and compared with traditional quaternary ammonium salt. The results showed that the γcmc increases with increasing the hydrophobic chain length and EDQ‐12 presented the highest surface activity. The diffusion coefficients calculated from the Ward‐Tordai equation indicates the adsorption process is a mixed‐diffusion kinetic adsorption mechanism. The water solubility of EDQ‐n is higher than dioctadecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (D1821) and ester quaternary ammonium salt (Esterquats). The fabric softness and whiteness properties of EDQ‐16 and EDQ‐18 are similar to D1821 and Esterquats, which can significantly reduce the cotton fabric softness and have no significant difference in whiteness retention. EDQ‐n demonstrated more readily biodegradation(>90 %) than D1821(0 %) after seven days. In addition, EDQ‐12 and EDQ‐14 show excellent antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in comparison with conventional bacteriostatic agent didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (DDAC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The microscopic evaluation of hemorrhagic infiltrates is crucial in forensic diagnostics, but it proves challenging in corificated and mummified cadavers. In these cases, pre-treatment with rehydrating solutions is recommended, although their effects on the hemorrhagic infiltrate are not well understood. In this pilot study, we microscopically investigated the effect of two different rehydrating solutions—Sandison's solution and fabric softener—on well-preserved human cadaveric skin samples taken from areas affected by an ecchymotic lesion, comparing them with direct fixation in formalin. Specifically, we examined the topographic distribution of the hemorrhagic infiltrate in each layer of the skin by assigning a semi-quantitative score, conducted mutual comparisons, and performed statistical analysis. Histologically, compared to direct fixation in formalin, a slight and statistically non-significant reduction in the hemorrhagic infiltrate was observed in samples pre-treated with fabric softener. On the other hand, a more pronounced and statistically significant decrease in scores was observed in samples pre-treated with Sandison's solution. This effect is likely due to the fact that Sandison's solution, due to its components, exerts an osmotic effect, partially inducing osmotic lysis of red blood cells. Overall, extensive areas of hemorrhagic infiltrates were preserved, although to a lesser extent, while smaller foci were markedly reduced, sometimes even disappearing. The findings suggest that Sandison's solution has a detrimental effect on cutaneous hemorrhagic infiltrates, emphasizing the importance of being cautious and conducting dual sampling, using both formalin and a rehydrating solution, for forensic examination of mummified or corificated skin samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This timeline documents the history of modern synthetic detergent products, beginning with the sulfonation of castor oil in 1831, to the development of present day detergent products such as Tide. Through this timeline, you can explore how chemical, health, environmental, military, legal, media, and gender factors intertwine to form the history of modern detergent and related products such as dryer sheets and fabric softeners.

Microscopic examination of mummified or corified skin may be of extreme importance for forensic purposes. However, standard histological samples in these cases are low-end, and preparation is burdened by several problems and so are diagnostic results: an improvement of these types of specimens is therefore advantageous. This study aims to identify the best performing rehydration solution among a fabric softener, a body lotion, and Sandison's rehydrating solution. Samples of skin undergoing mummification or corification were collected from 25 corpses and each sample was divided into 4 fragments: one of these fragments was directly fixated in 4% formalin, one was previously treated with a tissue softener, another one was previously treated with a body lotion, and the last one was treated with Sandison's solution. After 72 h, the pretreated samples were post-fixated in 4% formalin and then prepared for standard histological examination staining the histological slides with hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's trichrome. At the microscopic examination, samples directly fixated in formalin were characterized by usual marked structural alterations and altered stainability, typical of such dry tissues. Vice versa, those previously treated appeared to be better-preserved even though with different improvement levels: body lotion made a medium–low-grade restoration of the tissues, and fabric softener a high-grade restoration, while Sandison's rehydrating solution produced an optimal grade restoration. Sandison's rehydrating solution was confirmed to be the best rehydrating substance for mummified and corified skin. Fabric softener could be, however, considered a valid substitute, being productive of high-grade microscopic yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fabric softener is usually applied to laundry during a rinse stage. It is composed of surfactants, solvents and others, which can escape into the air and cause adverse effects. Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from fabrics conditioned with liquid fabric softener were measured and compared with those unconditioned and conditioned with water. Undyed, naturally- and chemically-dyed silks, cotton, polyester, Tetron cotton (T/C) and rayon fabrics were tested. The test fabrics were cut into 15×40 mm rectangles and equilibrated for 24 hr at 30 °C in 20 ml vials. The emitted VOCs in the vial air were sampled, using a solid phase microextraction technique and then analyzed by a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. Alkanes and toluene were mostly detected from the unconditioned fabrics. Toluene was emitted from machine woven fabrics - cotton, polyester, T/C and rayon - but not detected in the hand-woven silk. The fabrics emitted total VOCs per unit projected surface area in the range of 1-9 µg/m2 as toluene equivalent. Water-washing reduced emissions by 4 - 55%, whereas the fabric softener treatment increased emissions by 10 - 163% from the watertreated ones, except for the undyed silk. The most commonly emitted VOCs, from the fabrics treated with the fabric softener, were ethyl 2-methyl butyrate, nonanal, d-limonene and eucalyptol - compounds used to enhance fragrance. This demonstrated that fabric softeners contribute to the release of several VOCs mixtures that did not originate from the fabric itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The composition of industrial wastewater, its purification and concentration processes using ceramic membrane modules were investigated. Industrial wastewater produced as a result of washing the production line at a plant manufacturing cationic surfactants (in the esterquats group) was subjected to membrane filtration in a semi-pilot plant, run in concentration mode. Analysis of the raw wastewater showed very high organic matter content, expressed as COD, in the range of 17,700 to 24,300 mg L−1 and the concentration of cationic surfactants amounted to 2890–3390 mg L−1 mg/L. Ceramic membrane modules with a pore size of 0.14 μm exhibited high effectiveness in surfactant wastewater treatment. COD, TOC and turbidity were reduced by 93%, 95%, and 99%, respectively. When the process was run in concentration mode almost 50% of the permeate was recovered.

An electrochemical, cationic, surfactant-selective sensor based on multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) functionalized with a sulfate group and the cetylpyridinium ion (MWCNT-OSO3-CP+) as a sensing material was used for optimization of the formulation of a fabric softener. Poten-tiometric titrations were performed and response measurements were obtained using four cationic surfactants (CS) of technical grade and four CS of analytical grade. The slope closest to Nernstian was obtained for di-(tallow carboxyethyl) hydroxyethyl methylammonium methosulfate (MAS) (59.5 ± 1.1 mV/decade of activity in water and 57.5 ± 1.3 mV/decade of activity in CaCl2). When using CS as analytes in potentiometric titrations, the best accuracy (99.8%) was obtained when using MAS; therefore, it was chosen as the CS for the fabric softener formulation. Due to the better properties of fabric softeners with silicone in their formulations, four sili-cones at several concentration levels were used as potential additives. Based on the stability and viscosity of the system, the diquaternary polydimethylsiloxane (DPS) (w = 0.19%) was chosen for the fabric softener formulation. The pH did not significantly influence the potential when in the range of 3-8 or the recovery of potentiometric titrations when in the range of 3-7. The application profile of the CS was assessed through streaming potential measurements of reference fabrics in an electrokinetic analyzer. The obtained electrokinetic parameters indicated on lag in adsorption of model fabric softener (MFS) based on MAS (w = 9%), with the addition of silicone DPS (MFS 3), on cotton and polyester fabrics, but advantage in stability when compared with other MFS investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fragrances, a mixture of various aromatic compounds, usually have low aqueous solubility and instability to the environment. This research aimed to fabricate the encapsulation of two fragrances in zein nanoparticles and apply it in fabric softener to sustain the fabric with long‐lasting fragrance. Pink fruity fragrances (PF) and white floral fragrances (WF) encapsulated zein nanoparticles (PF‐ZNs and WF‐ZNs) were prepared by the liquid–liquid dispersion method. Zein and fragrances were mixed and immediately poured under high‐speed homogenizer into citrate buffer containing Tween 20 as a surfactant, and ethanol was removed using a rotary vacuum evaporator. PF‐ZNs and WF‐ZNs obtained exhibited spherical shape with average sizes at 219.1 ± 7.7 and 301.1 ± 9.8 nm, respectively. The encapsulation efficiency of PF‐ZNs, at 69.15 ± 1.31 %, was significantly higher than that of the WF‐ZNs, at 63.91 ± 1.40% (P <.05). Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated that both fragrances' thermal stability was improved after the encapsulation. The PF‐ZNs and WF‐ZNs were added to fabric softeners and applied to three types of fabrics: cotton, polyester (TK), and blends of cotton/polyester (TC), and the fragrance remaining in the fabrics for 30 days of storage were determined by gas chromatography. The retention of both PF and WF was improved in all fabrics, and significant effects were performed in the cotton fabric with PF‐ZNs. The results showed the potential to use the fragrances encapsulated in zein nanoparticles as fabric softener to improve fabrics' long‐lasting properties, especially for cotton. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • First report on the enzymatic esterification of oleic acid and triethanolamine using acoustic cavitation. • Time required for the esterification has been reduced from 24 h to 2.5 h with the help of enzymatic acoustic cavitation. • Application of esterquat has been successfully accomplished as fabric softener in textile. Abstract The present study deals with the ultrasound-assisted enzymatic synthesis of diester from oleic acid and triethanolamine (TEA) for the preparation of esterquat. The effect of reaction conditions such as sonication time, reaction temperature, sonication power, enzyme loading on the % of esterification has been investigated. Acid value analysis was used to check the progress of the reaction. The formed product was confirmed with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. The highest esterification (%) was found at sonication time of 2.5 h (150 min), a reaction temperature of 40 °C, sonication power of 80 W and catalyst concentration of 3 wt. % lipase. The enzymatic ultrasound method (EUS) compared with conventional heating method (NUS) and the conventional enzymatic method (NEUS). EUS method requires only 2.5 h while the NUS and NEUS method requires 8 h and 24 h of time for the esterification reaction respectively. Catalyst reusability has been investigated. The important surface-active properties of the prepared esterquat have been investigated and it shows the excellent application in the textile as a fabric softener. Ultrasound-assisted synthesized esterquat has a great potential in terms of economical product to serve desirable property to the fabric. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Formulation of organomodified siloxanes as emulsion and microemulsions. • Softening performance of the formulations are evaluated via panel tests. • Panel test results are correlated with data from deposition experiments. Abstract Organomodified silicones (OMS), which conventionally find use in textile finishing processes, have recently become a very interesting prospect in the field of fabric softeners. Here, we present OMS-based fabric softener formulations in the form of classical emulsion (droplet size ≈0.1 μm – 10 μm) and microemulsions (droplet size ≈5 nm–50 nm) using nonionic surfactants (NIS) as emulsifier. Streaming potential measurements are used to obtain a measure of droplet surface charge, and it was found to be related to the ratio of masses of OMS and NIS present in the formulations. In this work, it is investigated how the performance of these formulations is influenced by properties such as droplet size and streaming potential. Panel tests were carried out to evaluate the sensory properties of fabric treated by these formulations, and they reveal that the classical emulsion performs better than the microemulsions. For the microemulsions, it is found that softening performance increases with streaming potential. The observed trends in softening performance are explained by considering the difference in location or penetration of softening actives on or into fabric. Two different experimental approaches are implemented to gain insights into the underlying phenomena. In the first approach, batch deposition experiments are carried out to characterize OMS deposition on fabric. In the second approach, a chromatographic technique is used to compare the deposition kinetics of different formulations. The findings of the experiments provide insights into the reasons underlying the contrasting softening performance. The final results are discussed with respect to existing literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hypothesis Colloidal deposition on porous substrates is a complex process influenced by both, (i) characteristics of colloidal permeation into porous substrates, and (ii) mechanism of colloidal deposition on solid surfaces. Such processes are quintessential to action of products such as hair conditioners and fabric softeners where the substrates to be treated are porous. The performance of these formulations is linked with the distribution of deposited colloids across porous substrates i.e. whether deposition is localized near substrate periphery, or deposition is homogeneously distributed. Experiments In this work, we investigate the deposition of cationic vesicles, commonly used in fabric softeners, on anionic porous cotton yarns via spectrophotometric measurement of adsorption density of vesicles on yarns and electrokinetic measurement of cotton yarn apparent zeta potentials. Under the employed conditions, cotton yarn apparent zeta potentials are sensitive predominantly to external yarn surfaces. Therefore, these measurements can distinguish between deposition on external and internal yarn surfaces. Findings The phase behavior of lipid bilayers constituting the vesicles is identified as an important governing factor with solid-gel vesicles depositing more near yarn periphery, and liquid-crystalline vesicles depositing more uniformly throughout the yarns. Bulk electrical conductivity also influences the distribution of deposited vesicles. The results are explained with the help of a newly proposed theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deposition of vesicles on solid surfaces can in some cases result in the formation of assemblies of intact surface-bound vesicles known as supported vesicular layers (SVLs). Understanding the mechanism of SVL formation is thus important for effective utilization of vesicles in applications involving vesicle-substrate interactions such as drug delivery and fabric softening. In this work, we investigate SVL formation of two different types of cationic vesicles made up of lipid bilayers existing in the solid-gel and liquid-crystalline phases, respectively, on both smooth and rough anionic cellulose fibers. Deposition is studied quantitatively via spectrophotometric determination of bulk lipid concentrations, and characterization of fiber apparent zeta potentials via streaming potential measurements. Equilibrium deposition results, and profiles of variation of substrate apparent zeta potentials with deposition reveal that the deposition mechanisms of the two vesicle types are similar on rough surfaces (cotton) but significantly different on smooth surfaces (viscose). It is concluded that vesicle deposition mechanism is governed by the surface mobility of deposited vesicles which is dependent on substrate roughness and lipid bilayer phase behavior controlled vesicle properties. Results indicate that while both the vesicle types are immobile on rough surfaces, on smooth surfaces liquid-crystalline vesicles are preferentially mobile over solid-gel vesicles. Possible reasons underlying the vesicle surface mobility characteristics are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flame-retardant cellulose fibers were prepared by dissolving cellulose in tetrabutylammonium acetate and dimethyl sulfoxide, and blending with amino silicone oil (ASO). The ASO was used as a novel fabric softener and flame retardant for cellulose fibers. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy showed that blending with ASO did not adversely affect the cellulose fibers. The flame retardancy of the cellulose fibers blended with ASO was determined based on the limiting oxygen index (LOI). Cellulose fibers blended with 8 wt% (add-on) ASO gave the best flame retardancy, with an LOI of 28, which was higher than that of the virgin fibers. The thermal properties of the flame-retardant cellulose fibers were investigated using differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis. The results showed that ASO prevented degradation of the cellulose fibers, hindered the formation of volatile species, and favored char formation. The mechanical properties of the flame-retardant cellulose fibers were better than those of virgin cellulose fibers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A visible-light-based photopolymerization is an attractive approach for encapsulating volatile essential oils with low aqueous solubility and stability. This research aimed to encapsulate pink fruity fragrance (PF) and white floral fragrance (WF) with poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), termed respectively as PF-PMMA and WF-PMMA, through photopolymerization under blue-light emitting diodes (LEDs) exposure. The PF-PMMA and WF-PMMA were used in fabric softeners to provide a long-lasting fragrance to the fabric. The wavelength of the blue-LEDs light was 410–530 nm, while camphorquinone and ethyl 4-(dimethylamino) benzoate were used as co-photoinitiators. The effect of the mixing ratio between polymer shell and core material on particle size, conversion, and encapsulation efficiency of WF-PMMA and PF-PMMA was investigated. The size of the prepared WF-PMMA and PF-PMMA microcapsules were 3.1–3.7 µm and 2.1–2.3 µm, respectively. These microcapsules were added to fabric softeners and applied to TC fabric. The highest encapsulation efficiency and conversion of WF-PMMA and PF-PMMA were 95.7 ± 0.1 %, 93.5 ± 2.4 %, 89.4 ± 1.0 %, and 74.1 ± 4.2 %, respectively. It was also found that the fragrances remaining in the fabrics after 30 d storage was 54.3 % for PF-PMMA and 37 % for WF-PMMA. The results presented the high potential for microencapsulation of fragrances by photopolymerization to prolong the fragrance release duration. Pink fruity fragrance (PF), and white floral fragrance (WF) was micro-encapsulated with poly (methyl methacrylate, PMMA), termed respectively as PF-PMMA, and WF-PMMA, through photopolymerization under blue-light emitting diodes (LEDs) exposure. The encapsulation efficiency of WF-PMMA and PF-PMMA were 95.7 %, and 93.5 %, respectively. The microcapsules were applied in fabric softeners for TC fabric and could extend the long-lasting fragrance for more than 1 month. [Display omitted] • White and pink fragrances (WF, PF) were microencapsulated by photopolymerization. • Methyl methacrylate (PMMA) was used for the microencapsulation. • Both microcapsules (WF-PMMA, and PF-PMMA) were applied in fabric softener. • The encapsulation could extend the fragrance for TC fabric for more than 1 month. • Smaller particle sizes resulted to microcapsules with higher remaining fragrances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hypothesis Understanding the mechanism of intact vesicle deposition on solid surfaces is important for effective utilization of vesicles as active ingredient carriers in applications such as drug delivery and fabric softening. In this study, the deposition of large (d avg = 12 μm) and small (d avg = 0.27 μm) cationic vesicles of ditallowethylester dimethylammonium chloride (DEEDMAC) on smooth and rough anionic cellulose fibers is investigated. Experiments The deposition process is studied quantitatively using streaming potential measurements and spectrophotometric determination of DEEDMAC concentrations. Natural and regenerated cellulose fibers, namely cotton and viscose, having rough and smooth surfaces, respectively, are used as adsorbents. Equilibrium deposition data and profiles of substrate streaming potential variation with deposition are used to gain insights into the fate of vesicles upon deposition and the deposition mechanism. Findings Intact deposition of DEEDMAC vesicles is ascertained based on streaming potential variation with deposition in the form of characteristic saturating profiles which symbolize particle-like deposition. The same is also confirmed by confocal fluorescence microscopy. Substrate roughness is found to considerably influence the deposition mechanism which, in a novel application of electrokinetic methods, is elucidated via streaming potential measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the actual factor determining the softening effect of a fabric softener. The adsorption area of the softener on model cotton cloths and yarns was identified using bromophenol blue. There was almost no softener at the cross-points of the yarns in the cloth samples or in the inner part of the yarns. The softening performance was better when there was less softener at the cross-points of the yarns than when the yarns were evenly covered by the softener. Thus we conclude that the presence of softener at the cross-points of yarns is not a vital factor in the softening effect. In addition, more softener was found on the outer part of the yarn than the inner part, indicating gradation in the adsorption pattern of the softener. Thus, we propose that more softener is adsorbed on the exposed part of the yarn in a cloth, and the formation of a hydrogen-bonding network containing bound water is inhibited, thus softening the outer part of the yarn. However, the presence of a small amount of softener in the inner part of the yarn preserves the hydrogen-bonding network. Favorable elasticity, or bounce, of the yarns and cloth is realized when an appropriate amount of softener is used. Excess softener would reach the inner part of the yarn, reducing the diameter of the core part of the yarn, making the cloth appear wilted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Novel crosslinked polysiloxane/SiO 2 nanocomposite (CLPS-SiO 2 ) was successfully prepared via the in-situ condensation reaction of silica sols and crosslinked polysiloxane with end-capped triethoxysilane in solvent, which was firstly fabricated through the modification of our previously developed crosslinked polysiloxane with end-capped epoxy groups using aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) and noted as APTES-CLPS. Chemical structures and thermal properties of the as-prepared resultants were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance spectra ( 1 H/ 13 C NMR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). CLPS-SiO 2 was applied as surface modification agent to treat cotton fabrics. Film morphologies and surface properties were examined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), contact angle measurements, and other instruments. FTIR and NMR confirmed structure of the products. CLPS-SiO 2 showed better thermal stability than APTES-CLPS due to anchor of the nanosilica. APTES-CLPS could deposit a smooth film on cotton fiber surface. Besides, CLPS-SiO 2 also coated the fibers with many nano-scaled tubercles beneath this smooth film by SEM. However, the APTES-CLPS film and the CLPS-SiO 2 film on silicon-wafer were never homogeneous and had a few low or high peaks. The root mean square roughness (Rq) of APTES-CLPS film reached to 0.441 nm in 2 × 2 μm 2 scanning field and at 5 nm data scale. Owing to the incorporation of nanosilica, that of CLPS-SiO 2 film continuously increased and could attain 4.528 nm in 2 × 2 μm 2 scanning field and at 20 nm data scale. XPS analysis further demonstrates that there was a CLPS-SiO 2 film covered on the cotton surface and the silyl groups had the tendency to enrich at the film–air interface. In addition, hydrophobicity of the CLPS-SiO 2 treated fabric would be enhanced with augment of the amount of nanocomposite. Water contact angle of this fabric could finally attain 158.0°. But most of all, its color and softness would not be influenced instead. The CLPS-SiO 2 treated fabric possessed good washing durability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most softening agents, such as rinse cycle fabric softeners, used by consumers at home contain cationic surfactants that have two long alkyl chains as their main component. The softening mechanism on fibers, especially cotton, has not yet been scientifically established, despite the market prevalence of fabric softeners for decades. One explanation for the softening effect is that the friction between fibers is reduced. According to this explanation, the fiber surfaces are coated by layers of alkyl chains. Because of the low coefficient of friction between alkyl chain layers of low surface energy, the fibers easily slide against one another yielding softer cotton clothing. However, no direct scientific evidence exists to prove the validity of this explanation. The softening mechanism of cotton yarn is discussed in this paper. Bending force values of cotton yarn treated with several concentrations of softener are measured by bend testing, and cotton and polyester yarns are compared. Results indicate that increases in cotton yarn hardness after natural drying are caused by cross-linking among inner fibers aided by bound water. This type of bound water has been known to exist even after 2 days of drying at 25 °C and 60 % relative humidity. Yarn dried in vacuo is soft, similar to that treated with softener. Thus, some of the softening effect caused by fabric softeners on cotton can be attributed to the prevention of cross-linking by bound water between cotton fibers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This paper reviews current and emerging fabric softener technologies including various benefits that can be achieved by manipulating quat active structure, polymer/quat active combination systems, single rinse products, consumer product forms, softening-through-the-wash, and fragrances used in fabric softeners. The technologies reviewed are aimed at the consumer market. Insights are provided into the drivers behind the technologies as well as their influence on market trends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy constraints have altered consumer practice regarding the use of household washing machines. Washing machines were developed that use lower washing temperatures, smaller amounts of water and biodegradable detergents. These conditions may favour the enrichment of opportunistic human pathogenic fungi. We focused on the isolation of fungi from two user-accessible parts of washing machines that often contain microbial biofilms: drawers for detergents and rubber door seals. Out of 70 residential washing machines sampled in Slovenia, 79% were positive for fungi. In total, 72 strains belonging to 12 genera and 26 species were isolated. Among these, members of the Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani species complexes, Candida parapsilosis and Exophiala phaeomuriformis represented 44% of fungi detected. These species are known as opportunistic human pathogens and can cause skin, nail or eye infections also in healthy humans. A machine learning analysis revealed that presence of detergents and softeners followed by washing temperature, represent most critical factors for fungal colonization. Three washing machines with persisting malodour that resulted in bad smelling laundry were analysed for the presence of fungi and bacteria. In these cases, fungi were isolated in low numbers (7.5 %), while bacteria Micrococcus luteus , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Sphingomonas species prevailed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cationic surfactants are mainly used for fabric softening in laundry applications. Esterquats are one class of cationic surfactants and are superseding other existing cationic surfactants on account of their excellent biodegradability. However, indigenous and cost-effective production of esterquats poses new challenges for the researchers. The availability of rice bran fatty acids and its price structure in Indian scenario makes this fatty feedstock quite lucrative for cost-effective synthesis of cationic surfactants. In the present study, esterquats based on rice bran fatty acids (RBFAs) were synthesized by using different alkanolamines i.e. diethanolamine (DEA) and triethanolamine (TEA) and dimethyl sulphate (DMS) for obtaining cationic surfactants which was used as active softener ingredient. For this purpose, esterquats have been synthesized by esterification of RBFAs and alkanolamines to recover diesters followed by the subsequent quaternization of diesters by DMS. It was found that the optimum reaction conditions for esterification of RBFAs and DEA was 140 °C and 3 h of duration. However, for RBFAs and TEA, it was found to be 140 °C and 4 h of duration. The chemical structures of diesters and esterquats were confirmed by FT-IR and NMR spectra. Studies of surface active and performance properties of these surfactants showed that esterquats based on TEA had better surface active and performance properties as compared to DEA based esterquats. The synthesized cationic surfactants when mixed with nonionic surfactant showed better performance properties as compared to the nonionic surfactant alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An epoxy group-terminated polyvinylmethylsiloxane (EPVMS) was firstly prepared via the cohydrolysis/condensation reaction of octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D), 2,4,6,8-Tetramethyl-2,4,6,8-tetravinylcyclotetrasiloxane (DV), and epoxy group-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (ETP) under a base catalyst. Then, the EPVMS was reacted with polymethylhydrosiloxane oligomer (PHMS) by hydrosilylation to develop novel crosslinked polysiloxane with end-capped epoxy groups (CLPS). The chemical structure and the thermal property of the as-prepared products were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), nuclear magnetic resonance spectra (H/C NMR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Finally, the CLPS was applied as the finishing agent to treat the cotton fabrics. The film morphology and the surface properties were examined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), contact angle measurements, and other instruments. FT-IR and NMR results confirmed the structure of the resultants. The crosslinked polysiloxane CLPS showed better thermal stability than the uncrosslinked polysiloxane EPVMS. The CLPS film on cotton fabric surface seemed to be smooth compared to the control by SEM. However, owing to the crosslinked structure, the CLPS film on silicon-wafer was inhomogeneous and had a few weak or strong peaks. At 5 nm data scale and in 2×2 μm scanning field, the root mean square roughness of CLPS film reached to 0.414 nm. XPS analysis further demonstrates that there was a CLPS film covered on the cotton surface. Hydrophobicity of the CLPS treated fabric was superior to that of the EPVMS treated one. Whiteness of the treated fabrics by CLPS and EPVMS did not change at all compared to the control. The softness of the two treated fabrics was both better than that of control and particularly the softness of the EPVMS treated fabrics was preferable. The CLPS treated fabric possessed good washing durability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of the softener treatment on the fabric properties was experimentally investigated using a cationic surfactant with double alkyl chain. The surfactant adsorption was evaluated using the cellulose and PET films by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, the atomic force microscopy and the quartz crystal microbalance technique. The adsorption amount increased with increasing concentration in the range of 1-5 times standard dose. After the treatment, the thickness and the coefficient of friction of the cotton towel increased, but those of the plain-woven fabrics of cotton, polyester/cotton and polyester did not change significantly. In the case of these plain-woven fabrics, the change in the mechanical properties such as wrinkle resistance and tensile strength and extension due to the treatment were negligibly small. On the other hand, the decrease in water wicking was observed for the cotton towel and woven fabrics. The increases in water wicking and antistatic property were clearly observed for the polyester fabric. With respect to water wicking, the similar tendency was obtained using the commercial softener. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fabric softeners are mainly used to reduce roughness and static electricity of textiles, as well as adding a scent to them. In this paper we study how fabric softeners are related to odour prop-erties on clothing. We combine a Norwegian consumer survey with a sensory test on odour development on four different materials used in sports clothing. Samples went through several cycles of use with sweating, washing, and airing and the odour was evaluated at 11 stages. Washing was performed either with or without a fragrance-free domestic rinse cycle softener. Sen-sory test showed that use of softener increased odour on poly-ester garments. Survey results showed that a larger number of respondents who used softeners experienced problematic odours in laundry compared to those who did not use softeners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we categorised the surface properties of different knitted fabrics by their electro-kinetic behaviour and liquid up-take phenomena of the knitted textiles in order to understand the interaction of the surface properties of the textiles with cationic softener deposition. The electro-kinetic and liquid uptake properties of textiles were measured by their zeta-potential and liquid absorption ability. We also examined the influence of fabric softener on the surface characteristics of the textiles. We used solvent extraction followed by cationic titration to determine the cationic softener level present on the textiles. The major finding of this study was the different behaviour of individual loads and mixed loads in terms of cationic pick up from the rinse cycle softener. Fibre type plays the most critical role in determining the zeta potential of the fibre, filtration efficiency and water retaining capability of the fabrics, which in turn play the most important role in softener deposition on the textile. The charge on the textile surface is negative; this plays a key role in the deposition of the cationic softener in both kinds of loading conditions. Capillary diffusion could be a key parameter only in the individual load condition. It was found that there is a significant reduction in the liquid adsorption weight when fabrics are treated with levels of softener that are much higher than those associated with normal consumer use. As soon as the fabric comes into contact with the liquid, the fabric softener molecules transfer from the fabric to the liquid and reduce the surface energy of the liquid. This results in an increase in the wetting weight of the fabric. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study involves subjective and objective evaluation of drapeability of knitted textiles during the life cycle of a fabric. The life cycle of fabric was represented by forty laundry cycles in this paper. We examined the influence of knitting construction, fibre fineness, number of washing cycles and use of the fabric softener during the laundry cycle on the drape coefficient of the PET and viscose knitted fabrics, and also investigated the order of influence of these four factors on drape coefficient. A high degree of correlation was found between subjective score of drapeability and drape coefficient. We defined the tracking criterion to investigate the relevance between subjective drape score and mechanical parameters. An intelligent system based on fuzzy logic for correlating the drapeability and most relevant mechanical parameter was developed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Distribution of fabric softeners on cotton terry cloth was studied using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray analysis. The unsaturated groups in the quaternary fabric softeners were tagged with osmium tetroxide to provide contrast in the microscopy. Longitudinal specimens showed the fabric softeners distributed over the cotton fiber surfaces with more in the crenulation of the fiber. Cross sectional specimens revealed that the fabric softener was distributed throughout the cotton fibers with higher concentrations of fabric softener observed in the lumen and crenulation than in the secondary wall and non-crenulated fiber surface. This distribution of fabric softener is consistent with deposition on both external fiber surfaces and internal fibril surfaces. The deposition and final surface coverage is strongly dependent on the pH value of the washing medium. Repeated treatment cycles with fabric softener using a higher pH washing media resulted in higher concentrations of fabric softener on and within the cotton fibers. Neutral or lower pH washing media resulted in a somewhat constant concentration of fabric softener on and with cotton fibers with increased number of treatment cycles. Differences in perception of softness of the treated fabrics are not explained by differences in distribution of the fabric softener; it appear that there is an optimum amount of softener to achieve the desired sensory response and that further deposition build-up does not increase perception of softness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Triethanolamine (TEA)-based esterquat has been the primary ingredient in European fabric softeners for several years and is becoming the global molecule of choice. Although it has an excellent environmental profile, TEA esterquat has been plagued by mediocre performance compared to historical molecules such as dihydrogenated tallow dimethyl ammonium chloride and ditallow imidazoline quat. In this study, the chain lengths, the level of unsaturation, and the source of the raw material (tallow or palm stearine) were varied to better understand their effect on softening and dispersion viscosity. Palm stearine derivatives generally soften as well as tallow derivatives despite the lower C18 content of palm. Various additives were examined to improve dispersibility and other properties such as dye transfer inhibition (DTI) and ease of ironing. DTI is normally accomplished in the wash cycle by additives to the laundry detergent such as polyvinylpyrrolidone. In this study, we found that fabric softener molecules themselves provide some color care, or DTI. Certain additives to fabric softeners, such as monoalkylquats, greatly enhance the color care of the fabric. DTI treatment in the rinse cycle of the washing sequence makes more sense scientifically and to the consumers, since fabric softeners are designed to coat the textile. Because no competing detergency operations are occurring during the rinse cycle, color care works well in the fabric softener cycle. Addition of organosilicones to fabric softeners reduces wrinkling of fabrics and makes them easier to iron. Softening increases slightly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]