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Motor rehabilitation in patients with facial disorders, such as facial paralysis (FP), has faced challenges in maintaining the patients' engagement and motivation in the intensive and repetitive execution of the exercises. To assist in the facial rehabilitation process, gamified tools (GTs) have been proposed to promote stimulation and engagement in affected patients. This study provides a comprehensive review on the use of GTs to aid facial rehabilitation, with the aim of investigating the potential of such computer-based tools to motivate facial mime exercises. A systematic search conducted on May 22, 2024, across five databases (Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, ACM Digital Library, and MEDLINE/PubMed) returned 1043 articles. The selection of studies resulted in 15 articles included for analysis, most of which were intended for patients recovering from FP. Bell's palsy, paralysis resulting from stroke, orofacial apraxia, and cerebral palsy were the patient disorders addressed in the articles. Facial mimic movements used for rehabilitation varied, the main actions considered in the studies were opening and closing the eyes, smiling, and raising the eyebrows. Studies focused on developing tools and conducting experiments with participants. Despite advances made by the selected studies, proposed computer-based tools for facial rehabilitation have not yet reached the necessary maturity for their use in clinical settings. Consequently, additional efforts are needed to perform new studies to mitigate the challenges presented in this research area. Therefore, this is a constantly evolving area of research and offers a huge window of opportunity for further research.

Purpose: Idiopathic facial paralysis is a challenging condition that can significantly impact patients' quality of life. Treatment options include both medical to surgical management. The objective is to further understand and review the current literature on the effectiveness of physical therapy for treatment of idiopathic facial paralysis., Materials and Methods: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library were searched. English-language studies assessing the outcomes of idiopathic facial paralysis in adults after completion of physical therapy were included for analysis., Results: This study screened 778 studies, of which 12 met inclusion criteria. There were 228 patients included for analysis. Four studies, contributing 79 patients, included sex and age demographics, with a breakdown of 45 females and 34 males with an average age of 49.4 years. Objective outcomes were most frequently measured by utilizing the Sunnybrook Facial Grading System, followed by House-Brackmann Score and Facial Disability Index. All studies highlighted the positive result physical therapy had on facial rehabilitation., Conclusion: The body of literature on physical therapy in treating idiopathic facial paralysis, although limited in size, strongly supports its use to accelerate recovery and minimize adverse outcomes. These findings suggest the addition of physical therapy in the management of patients with facial paralysis., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest None., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Facial nerve palsy can pose functional, psychosocial, and cosmetic issues for patients. Although various surgical techniques can improve facial functions and appearance for patients who do not fully recover following conservative management, they can be extensively invasive with limited restoration of facial movement and symmetry. Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a technology that has been developed to stimulate paralyzed nerves or muscles and has 2 different applications in facial nerve palsy treatment: facial rehabilitation and neuroprosthesis. Our study focuses specifically on the neuroprosthesis application of FES, which uses signals from the healthy side of the face to stimulate the paralyzed side. This emerging neuroprosthetic technology is less invasive and holds promise in synchronizing facial movements. The purpose of our scoping review was to understand the landscape of the models that have been developed, as well as the outcomes of these studies in leading to facial movement on the paralyzed side. We found 22 studies in our review that each used varying methods for detecting facial movement from the healthy side and differing stimulation types and parameters, with each study describing successful stimulation of facial movement on the paralyzed side using healthy hemiface input., (Copyright © 2024 British Association of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Recent case reports have emphasized the essential clinical contribution of telerehabilitation in the treatment of facial palsy. However, no randomized controlled trial has yet demonstrated the effects of telerehabilitation-based facial exercise therapy. Thus, we aimed to investigate the effectiveness of video exercise-based telerehabilitation on motor and non-motor clinical outcomes in adults with facial palsy. We conducted a randomized controlled trial with 40 peripheral facial palsy patients. Those in the experimental group (EG) received four weeks of telerehabilitation-based video exercises and routine care. Those in the control group (CG) received only routine care. All participants were evaluated with the Facial Disability Index (FDI), the Facial Clinimetric Evaluation Scale (FaCE), Short Form-12 (SF-12), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), the House-Brackmann Scale (H-B) and the Telemedicine Satisfaction and Usefulness Questionnaire (TSUQ), both before and after the interventions. Both groups demonstrated a significant improvement in FDI, FaCE, and SF-12 PCS scores ( p < .05). In addition, there was a significant improvement only in EG on the SF-12 MCS score ( p < .05), and there was a significant gain only in CG on the HADS-Depression score ( p < .05). While these results provide a further contribution to our understanding of telerehabilitation benefits in mental health variables related to quality of life for facial palsy patients, we found no EG and CG differences on the physical components of treatment., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Background: Recently, our research team developed an open source and free website called the MEPP website (for the Mirror Effect Plus Protocol) to efficiently provide mirror therapy for patients with facial palsy. Previous studies demonstrated that the first version of the MEPP website improved user experience and likely optimized patients' performance during facial therapy. Nevertheless, compliance was found to be low despite a generally positive opinion of the website, and in light of our earlier findings, MEPP 2.0-a revised and enhanced version of the MEPP 0.1-was created. The purpose of this study was to examine and contrast various factors that help or impede institutional partners of the Quebec health care system from using the MEPP 2.0 website in comparison to its initial version., Methods: Forty-one patients with facial palsy and nineteen clinicians working with this population were enrolled in a within-subject crossover study. For both the MEPP 1.0 and MEPP 2.0, user experience was assessed for all participants. Embodiment was assessed in patients, and factors influencing clinical use were assessed by clinicians. Qualitative comments about their experiences were also gathered. Descriptive statistics and reliability measures were calculated. Differences between the two MEPP versions were assessed using the linear mixed model., Results: Overall, patients appreciated more the MEPP 2.0 (OR = 4.57; p < 0.001), and all clinicians preferred the MEPP 2.0 over the MEPP 1.0. For patients, it seems that facial ownership, as well as possession and control of facial movements, was significantly better with the MEPP 2.0. For clinicians, the MEPP 2.0 specifically allowed them to self-evaluate their intervention and follow up with more objectivity. The use of the MEPP 2.0 was also modulated by what their patients reported. Qualitatively, options to access an Android app and needs for improving the exercises bank were mentioned as hindering factors., Conclusions: The updated version of the MEPP website, the MEPP 2.0, was preferred by our different partners., Trial Registration: https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN10885397 . The trial was registered before the start of the study on the 1 st December 2023., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Objectives: Among the complications of parotid surgery, facial palsy is frequent and burdened by high functional and social impact for the patient. There are few data on the efficacy of facial neuromuscular retraining (FNR) in patients with facial palsy after parotid surgery, and no data exist on its impact in timing and extent of recovery., Material and Methods: A retrospective study was conducted on patients undergoing FN sparing parotid surgery and suffering from postoperative facial palsy. Among 400 patients undergoing surgery between July 2016 and May 2023, those with the preservation of the FN and onset of facial palsy were selected. Nerve function was evaluated during 2 years follow up using the House-Brackman (H&Bs) and Sunnybrook scales (SBs)., Results: A total of 46 patients undergoing partial or total parotidectomy were included. At discharge 18 patients (39,1%) had IV to VI grade paralysis according to the H&Bs and the mean SBs value was 54. At 2 and 6 months after surgery, the average value of Sunnybrook increased to 76.5 and 95.4 respectively. After 12 months no patients with IV to VI grade paralysis were represent in our cohort. Two years after surgery, only five patients (10.9%) had persistent grade II paralysis according to HBs., Conclusions: Our study supports the efficacy of FNR in the rehabilitation of facial paralysis after nerve-sparing parotidectomy. The greater functional improvement is achieved within the first 6 months of rehabilitation. A significant improvement is detected still after 18 months, supporting the importance of long rehabilitation for patients without complete recovery after the first year., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Objective: Facial paralysis (FP), which resulted from head and neck cancer resection, significantly impacts patients' quality of life. Traditional assessments rely on subjective evaluations and electromyography, whereas functional magnetic resonance imaging offers a noninvasive alternative for enhanced rehabilitation. Acupuncture has shown promise in promoting cerebral cortex reorganization, yet the precise relationship between acupuncture-induced structural and functional changes remains unclear, necessitating further investigation into therapeutic mechanisms., Methods: Fifty-five patients afflicted with FP underwent evaluations using voxel-mirrored homotopic connectivity (VMHC) and tract-based spatial statistics and were divided into the acupuncture intervention group (n = 35) and pseudo intervention group (n = 20). Comparative analyses of metrics pre and postintervention were conducted to delineate therapy-induced modifications in acupuncture intervention. The postacupuncture effect between groups to verify the necessity of accurate positioning for the rehabilitation of FP., Results: Patients with FP showed deficits in VMHC in regions of the postcentral, precentral, and parietal areas. Corpus callosum and internal capsule showed significantly increased fractional anisotropy of the white matter skeleton in tract-based spatial statistics after treatment. Comparison postintervention results between groups exhibited deficits in VMHC and increased fractional anisotropy in regions of the corpus callosum in the acupuncture intervention group., Conclusions: Early acupuncture intervention may suppress cortical hyperactivation and restore interhemispheric inhibition across the corpus callosum to inhibit maladaptive structural plasticity. Precise acupoint localization is crucial for effective therapy, highlighting the potential of postacupuncture cortical space data for refining therapeutic strategies., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024 by Mutaz B. Habal, MD.)

Background: Facial muscle dysfunction can have drastic psychosocial effects. Objectives: To evaluate the impacts of customized neuromuscular retraining on mental health, quality of life (QoL), facial muscle function, and synkinesis. Methods: Thirty patients with facial nerve dysfunction completed a course of neuromuscular retraining. Patients' mental health, QoL, facial muscle function, and synkinesis were evaluated using Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Facial Clinimetric Evaluation (FaCE) scale, electronic, clinician-graded facial function scale (eFACE), and Synkinesis Assessment Questionnaire (SAQ) at the initial and final visits. Scores were compared before and after treatment. Results: Patients ( n  = 30) included had a mean age of 59.4 ± 13.4 years (range 32.3-82.8) and were mostly female (22/30, 73.3%). The most common etiology was Iatrogenic facial nerve paralysis (11/20, 36.7%). Most patients had postfacial paralysis synkinesis (15/30, 50%), while 10 had complete flaccid paralysis. The median house-Brackmann score was 2 (range 1-6). The mean duration of facial palsy was 39.5 ± 106.9 (range 1-576 months). The duration of follow-up after the initial treatment session was 5.5 months, including 10 sessions. After neuromuscular retraining median PHQ-9 scores improved from 5 (range 0-25) to 3 (range 0-20) ( p  = 0.002). Mean FaCE PROM scores increased from 47.7 ± 11.5 to 56.5 ± 8.8 ( p  = 0.001). The mean eFACE score increased from 55.8 ± 15.1 to 71.7 ± 13.6 ( p  < 0.001). Median SAQ score was lower at the final visit (34.6 ± 13.4) compared to the initial visit (47.7 ± 17.8; p  < 0.001). Conclusion: Customized neuromuscular retraining may improve patient-reported mental health, QoL, and facial muscle function and reduce synkinesis in facial nerve dysfunction.

Evidence on facial rehabilitation therapy (FRT) for acute facial paralysis (FP) remains limited. We present a retrospective review of patients with acute FP who have received FRT with physical therapists within 1 year of FP onset as determined by Sunnybrook Facial Grading Scale (SFGS) composite scores. A total of 702 patients with a clinical diagnosis of FP were referred to a university rehabilitation program between January 1, 2015 and January 1, 2022. Seventy-six patients met the criteria, defined as FP diagnosis <12 months before FRT initiation, ≥3 therapy sessions, and sufficient follow-up data. Average number of treatment sessions between SFGS scores was 7.7. History of cancer, sex, number of treatment sessions, and initial SFGS score were correlated with change in SFGS. Time to treatment was not correlated with change in SFGS score. SFGS improved with each additional treatment session ( p  < 0.01). Each additional point in the initial SFGS was correlated with less change in the final SFGS score ( p  < 0.01). FRT can provide meaningful improvement in functionality for patients with acute FP, regardless of time to treatment. Furthermore, patients who present with poorer functionality at baseline and those who undergo more treatment are most likely to see SFGS improvement. Research comparing the effect of facial rehabilitation with other treatment modalities and to a control cohort is warranted., Competing Interests: None declared., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Facial neuromuscular rehabilitation (fNMR) is an evidence-based practice for the treatment of peripheral facial palsy (PFP). Surgical reconstruction can be indicated for patients who demonstrate poor or no recovery to support symmetry, function, and aesthesis. There is paucity of research demonstrating the therapeutic benefit of a multidisciplinary team (MDT) in facial recovery of this specific subpopulation of patients. This article will outline the role of specialist facial therapy in the remediation of PFP, focusing on those who undergo surgical reconstruction to optimize their facial recovery. Case studies are used to demonstrate surgical and therapeutic outcomes as well as the results of a patient survey conducted for a service evaluation. We discuss the role of the MDT in supporting recovery as well as the role of targeted fNMR. The term fNMR is often used interchangeably with facial therapy or facial rehabilitation. We will refer to fNMR as a technique of facial rehabilitation.We aim to demonstrate that an MDT approach to the treatment of people with facial palsy provides positive outcomes for this surgical population and that future research would be beneficial to support this service delivery model., Competing Interests: None declared., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Facial paralysis is a challenging condition, and current treatments rely on invasive transplant surgeries using a two-stage free muscle transfer procedure. The use of artificial muscles is a novel, less invasive approach, allowing faster recovery and more cost-effective treatment. This paper aims at presenting the use of Dielectric Elastomer Actuators (DEAs), a recent type of smart materials, for post-paralysis upper facial reanimation, by introducing an eyebrow raising muscular prosthesis actuated in real time. The prosthesis aims at replacing the frontalis muscle responsible for raising the eyebrows, a vital function for the expression of emotions and non verbal communication. The facial muscles and neural interfaces governing upper facial eyebrow movements are studied in order to implement a realistic and anatomically precise setup. A non-invasive neural interface relying on myoelectric signals is then successfully used to achieve real-time control of the actuator, by synchronizing the actuator with the activity of a healthy muscle.

Background: Nonsurgical rehabilitation of unilateral peripheral facial palsy (FP) varies globally with controversy regarding best practice. Objective: To develop facial therapist consensus regarding what should be included or excluded in rehabilitation of adults with FP of any etiology. Three clinical presentations: flaccid, paretic and synkinetic, were separately considered. Methodology: A two-stage study was conducted: a nominal group technique (NGT) to develop a questionnaire plus Delphi study. Delphi participants were recruited worldwide, through an experience-based inclusion questionnaire. The final Delphi questionnaire included 166 items for each clinical presentation covering assessment, outcome measures, and interventions, for example, education, eye care, neuromuscular retraining, and electrical modalities. Inclusion/exclusion agreement was set at 80%, indicating participant consensus. Items reaching 70-79% were deemed "near-included/near-excluded." Results: Averaged across all presentations, 24.9% of the 166 items were included, (e.g., Sunnybrook Facial Grading System, patient education and neuromuscular retraining), 26.9% of the 166 items were excluded, (e.g., gross strengthening and electrical stimulation); 48.2% were neither included nor excluded. Conclusion: This study brings together the global community's expertise as a first step toward establishing best practice for specialist facial therapy. It is hoped this will guide clinical decision making, advance research, and optimize patient outcomes in this challenging field.

Purpose: To verify the efficacy of using athletic tape associated with myofunctional therapy in the speech-language-hearing treatment of facial palsy after stroke in the acute phase., Method: Randomized controlled clinical study with 88 patients with facial palsy in the acute phase of stroke. The sample was allocated in: Group 1: rehabilitation with orofacial myofunctional therapy and use of athletic tape on the paralyzed zygomaticus major and minor muscles; Group 2: rehabilitation alone with orofacial myofunctional therapy on the paralyzed face; Group 3: no speech-language-hearing intervention for facial paralysis. In the evaluation, facial expression movements were requested, and the degree of impairment was determined according to the House and Brackmann scale. Movement incompetence was obtained from measurements of the face with a digital caliper. After the evaluation, the intervention was carried out as determined for groups 1 and 2. The participants of the three groups were reassessed after 15 days. The statistical analysis used was the generalized equations., Results: The groups were homogeneous in terms of age, measure of disability and functioning, severity of neurological impairment and pre-intervention facial paralysis. Group 1 had a significant improvement in the measure from the lateral canthus to the corner of the mouth, with better results than groups 2 and 3., Conclusion: The athletic tape associated with orofacial myofunctional therapy had better results in the treatment of facial paralysis after stroke in the place where it was applied.

Objective: This study aimed to reveal the efficacy of physical therapy for patients with peripheral facial palsy., Methods: A literature search was conducted using PubMed, Ichushi-Web, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Published randomized controlled trials comparing the physical therapy versus placebo/non-treatment for peripheral facial palsy such as Bell's palsy, Ramsay Hunt syndrome, and traumatic facial palsy were included for meta-analysis. The primary outcome was non-recovery at the end of the follow-up. Non-recovery was defined according to the authors' definition. The secondary outcomes were the composite score of the Sunnybrook facial grading system and sequelae (presence of synkinesis or hemifacial spasm) at the end of the follow-up. Data was analyzed using Review Manager software and pooled risk ratio (RR) or mean difference (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated., Results: Seven randomized controlled trials met the eligible criteria. The data on non-recovery from four studies was obtained and included 418 participants in the meta-analysis. Physical therapy might reduce non-recovery (RR = 0.51 [95% CI = 0.31-0.83], low quality). Pooling the data of composite score of the Sunnybrook facial grading system from three studies (166 participants) revealed that physical therapy might increase the composite scores (MD = 12.1 [95% CI = 3.11-21.0], low quality). Moreover, we obtained data on sequelae from two articles (179 participants). The evidence was very uncertain about the effect of physical therapy on reduction of sequelae (RR = 0.64 [95% CI = 0.07-5.95], very low quality)., Conclusion: The evidence suggested that physical therapy reduces non-recovery in patients with peripheral facial palsy and improves the composite score of the Sunnybrook facial grading system, whereas the efficacy of physical therapy in reducing sequelae remained uncertain. The included studies had high risk of bias, imprecision, or inconsistency; therefore, the certainty of evidence was low or very low. Further well-designed randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm its efficacy., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest in association with the present study., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Facial palsy evaluation (FPE) aims to assess facial palsy severity of patients, which plays a vital role in facial functional treatment and rehabilitation. The traditional manners of FPE are based on subjective judgment by clinicians, which may ultimately depend on individual experience. Compared with subjective and manual evaluation, objective and automated evaluation using artificial intelligence (AI) has shown great promise in improving traditional manners and recently received significant attention. The motivation of this survey paper is mainly to provide a systemic review that would guide researchers in conducting their future research work and thus make automatic FPE applicable in real-life situations. In this survey, we comprehensively review the state-of-the-art development of AI-based FPE. First, we summarize the general pipeline of FPE systems with the related background introduction. Following this pipeline, we introduce the existing public databases and give the widely used objective evaluation metrics of FPE. In addition, the preprocessing methods in FPE are described. Then, we provide an overview of selected key publications from 2008 and summarize the state-of-the-art methods of FPE that are designed based on AI techniques. Finally, we extensively discuss the current research challenges faced by FPE and provide insights about potential future directions for advancing state-of-the-art research in this field.

Background: Facial palsy rehabilitation therapy plays an essential role in treating facial palsy., Purpose: This study aimed to gain insight into therapists' perceptions and attitudes toward facial palsy rehabilitation therapy and to examine whether therapists could be categorized into distinct groups based on these attitudes and perceptions., Methods: Thirteen semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted in a purposive sample of therapists. Interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. Next, a questionnaire containing questions about therapists' characteristics and perceptions and attitudes toward facial palsy rehabilitation therapy was sent to all facial palsy rehabilitation therapists in the Netherlands and Flanders (n = 292). Latent class analysis (LCA) was performed to identify and analyze distinct groups of therapists., Results: Seven themes were derived from the interviews: treatment goals, therapy content, indications, measurement instruments, factors influencing success, emotional support, and cooperation with colleagues. The questionnaire was filled out by 127 therapists. A 2-group structure consisting of a positive class and a negative class was found to fit the questionnaire data best. No distinction could be made regarding therapists' characteristics., Conclusion: Considerable variation in stated treatment practices was present among therapists. Therapists could be classified into 2 groups. This study raises several hypotheses that require further study.

Objective: To investigate the effectiveness of facial nerve-sublingual nerve parallel bridge anastomosis for facial nerve injury resulting from closed temporal bone fractures., Methods: Between January 2017 and December 2019, 9 patients with facial nerve injury resulting from closed temporal bone fracture caused by head and face trauma were treated. Among them, 5 patients were treated with facial nerve-sublingual nerve parallel bridge anastomosis (operation group), and 4 patients were treated with neurotrophic drugs combined with rehabilitation exercise (conservative group). There was no significant difference in gender, age, side, cause of injury, duration of facial nerve injury before surgery, House-brackmann grading (hereinafter referred to as HB grading) of facial nerve injury, and other general information between 2 groups ( P >0.05). HB grading was used to evaluate the improvement of facial nerve function before and after treatment. At the same time, facial nerve neuroelectrophysiological test was performed to evaluate the electrical activity of facial muscles before and after treatment. Tongue function, atrophy, and tongue deviation were evaluated after nerve anastomosis according to the tongue function scale proposed by Martins et al ., Results: Patients in both groups were followed up 12-30 months, with an average of 25 months. None of the 5 patients in the operation group showed symptoms such as tongue muscle atrophy, tongue extension deviation, hypoglossal nerve dysfunction (mainly including slurred speech, choking with water), postoperative infection, bleeding, lower limb muscle atrophy or lower limb motor dysfunction after sural nerve injury. Postoperative skin sensory disturbance in lateral malleolus area was found, but gradually recovered to normal. During the follow-up, facial nerve and sublingual motor neurons were innervated to paralyzed facial muscle in the operation group. At last follow-up, the HB grading of 5 patients in the operation group improved from preoperative grade Ⅴ in 2 cases, grade Ⅵ in 3 cases to grade Ⅱ in 3 cases, grade Ⅲ in 1 case, and grade Ⅳ in 1 case. And in the conservative group, there were 1 patient with grade Ⅴ and 3 patients with grade Ⅵ before operation, facial asymmetry continued during follow-up, and only 2 patients improved from grade Ⅵ to grade Ⅴ at last follow-up. There was significant difference in prognosis HB grading between the two groups ( t =5.693, P =0.001). In the operation group, the amplitude and frequency of F wave were gradually improved, and obvious action potential could be collected when the facial muscle was vigorously contracted. On the contrary, there was no significant difference in neuroelectrophysiological results before and after treatment in the conservative group., Conclusion: Facial nerve-sublingual nerve parallel bridge anastomosis can effectively retain the integrity of the facial nerve, while introducing the double innervation of the sublingual nerve opposite nerve, which is suitable for the treatment of severe incomplete facial nerve injury caused by closed fracture.

Previous research has shown that observers tend to form inaccurate and negatively biased first impressions of people with facial paralysis (FP). It has been hypothesised that this may be ameliorated by encouraging people to focus on channels of expression other than the face. This was tested in a web-based study of 466 participants. Participants in the Trained Condition received tips for perceiving expressiveness in individuals with FP, while those in the Untrained Condition received general medical information about FP. We observed no significant differences between groups for accuracy of emotion recognition, but a significant effect of the training upon perception of emotional intensity. These results show that attending to non-facial cues may improve social perception and reduce bias., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Purpose: To evaluate the outcome of facial nerve (FN) cable graft interposition in lateral skull base surgery., Materials and Methods: A group of 16 patients who underwent FN graft interposition procedure was retrospectively considered. Postoperative FN function was evaluated using the House-Brackmann (HB) grading system, the Sunnybrook Facial Grading System (SFGS), the Facial Disability Index (FDI) and the Oral Functioning Scale (OFS) questionnaires., Results: 56.2% of patients had a good postoperative FN outcome (HB grade II-III). Postoperative electromyography (EMG) showed re-innervation potentials in 60% of patients; median age of these patients was significantly lower compared to who did not manifest re-innervation (p = 0.039)., Conclusion: FN primary reconstruction remains the advisable rehabilitative option when the nerve is interrupted during lateral skull base surgeries, allowing to satisfactory postoperative results in more than half of patients. EMG confirmed the restoring of nerve conduction and it was more frequent in younger patients. The SFGS, the FDI and the OFS are important tools especially in the setting of a rehabilitation program., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Abstract: Facial paralysis is a clinical condition associated with significant functional and psychosocial morbidity (Facial Plast Surg FPS. 2011;27(4):346-57). The management paradigm for this condition continues to evolve with the use of both surgical and nonsurgical strategies (Facial Plast Surg FPS. 2011;27(4):346-57). Hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis is a surgical technique whereby the hypoglossal nerve acts as a donor motor nerve to restore facial muscle reinnervation via movements of the tongue (Plast Reconstr Surg. 1979;63(1):63-72). This case describes a 33-yr-old woman with unilateral facial paralysis who underwent hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis and 14 wks of postoperative rehabilitation. This report highlights the details of her rehabilitation regimen including the specific techniques used to enhance motor relearning of facial expression through movement of the tongue., Competing Interests: Financial disclosure statements have been obtained, and no conflicts of interest have been reported by the authors or by any individuals in control of the content of this article., (Copyright © 2020 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Peripheral facial paralysis (PFP) is a common peripheral neural disease. Acupuncture treatment combined with PFP rehabilitation exercises is a routine method of PFP treatment. This article is to provide a new visual and objective evaluation method for exploring the mechanism and efficacy of acupuncture treatment on PFP, and develop an interactive augmented facial nerve function rehabilitation training system with multiple training models., Methods: This prospective and observational trial will recruit 200 eligible participants for the following study. In the trial, the laser speckle contrast analysis (LASCA) technology will be applied to monitor the microcirculation of facial blood flow during acupuncture, and real-time monitoring algorithms, data sampling, and digital imaging methods will be conducted by machine learning and image segmentation. Then, a database of patient facial expressions will be built, the correlation between surface blood flow perfusion volume and facial structure symmetry will be analyzed, combined with scale assessment and electrophysiological detection. In addition, we will also explore the objectivity and effectiveness of LASCA in the evaluation of facial paralysis (FP), and the changes in blood flow microcirculation before and after acupuncture treatment will be analyzed., Results: The standard image of the facial target area with facial nerve injury will be manually segmented by the convolutional neural network method. The blood flow images of the eyelid, cheek, and mandible of the patients' affected and healthy side will be compared and evaluated. Laser speckle blood flow symmetry Pr and its changes in FP condition evolution and prognosis outcome will be measured, and relevant characteristic signals values will be extracted. Finally, COX regression analysis method is conducted to establish a higher accuracy prediction model of FP with cross-validation based on laser speckle blood flow imaging technology., Conclusions: We use modern interdisciplinary high-tech technologies to explore the mechanism of acupuncture rehabilitation training in PFP. And we will provide evidence for the feasibility of using the LASCA technique as a typing diagnosis of FP in the acupuncture rehabilitation treatment of PFP., Registration Number: ChiCTR1800019463., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2021 the Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc.)

Objective: To perform a preliminary test of a new rehabilitation treatment (FIT-SAT), based on mirror mechanisms, for gracile muscles after smile surgery., Method: A pre- and postsurgery longitudinal design was adopted to study the efficacy of FIT-SAT. Four patients with bilateral facial nerve paralysis (Moebius syndrome) were included. They underwent two surgeries with free muscle transfers, one year apart from each other. The side of the face first operated on was rehabilitated with the traditional treatment, while the second side was rehabilitated with FIT-SAT. The FIT-SAT treatment includes video clips of an actor performing a unilateral or a bilateral smile to be imitated (FIT condition). In addition to this, while smiling, the participants close their hand in order to exploit the overlapped cortical motor representation of the hand and the mouth, which may facilitate the synergistic activity of the two effectors during the early phases of recruitment of the transplanted muscles (SAT). The treatment was also aimed at avoiding undesired movements such as teeth grinding. Discussion . Results support FIT-SAT as a viable alternative for smile rehabilitation after free muscle transfer. We propose that the treatment potentiates the effect of smile observation by activating the same neural structures responsible for the execution of the smile and therefore by facilitating its production. Closing of the hand induces cortical recruitment of hand motor neurons, recruiting the transplanted muscles, and reducing the risk of associating other unwanted movements such as teeth clenching to the smile movements., Competing Interests: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Elisa De Stefani et al.)

Facial nerve paralysis (FNP) has a significant effect on a person's quality of life. In individuals with FNP undergoing facial rehabilitation, methods to analyze the loss of function are useful in diagnosis, treatment and follow up. To propose a protocol with kinematic analysis coupled with sEMG to evaluate the outcomes of FNP, quantifying the excursion degrees of the facial muscles and symmetry of voluntary movements. 10 patients (Group A) were followed by diagnosis until the end of the rehabilitation program. Kinematic analysis of 20 healthy adults (group B) was performed as a starting point to have a normality range and to test intra-subject and inter- intra rater reliability. An optoelectronic system and sEMG wireless electrodes were used. In Group A, a significant improvement in the movement of frontalis muscle (P = 0.0118) after 4-week treatment from the beginning (T0) 9.8 ± 4.5 mm to the end of rehabilitation (T1) 16.3 ± 5.8 mm and orbicularis oris (P = 0.0143) from T0 14.8 ± 5.5 mm to T1 20.3 ± 3.3 mm and, a reduction of % of maximum voluntary contractions (MVC) at T1 for frontalis and orbicularis compared to T0. This protocol provides meaningful data in a simple, reliable and objective way for the functional assessment of patients with PNF., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Importance: Facial paralysis (FP) after surgery has substantial functional, emotional, and financial consequences. Most iatrogenic FP is managed by watchful waiting, with the expectation of facial function recovery. A potential treatment is physical therapy (PT)., Objective: To investigate whether noninvasive PT compared with no PT or other intervention improves facial nerve outcomes in adults with iatrogenic FP., Evidence Review: Patients with noniatrogenic FP, facial reanimation surgery, and invasive adjunctive treatments (acupuncture or botulinum toxin injection) were excluded. A systematic review was conducted for records discussing iatrogenic FP and PT; a search for these records was performed using Ovid MEDLINE (1946-2019), Embase (1947-2019), Scopus (1823-2019), Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (2004-2019), and ClinicalTrials.gov (1997-2019). The references of all the included articles were also assessed for eligible studies. All human participant, English-language study designs with at least 2 cases were included. Quality assessment was performed using the Methodological Index for Non-randomized Studies (MINORS) and the revised Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 (RoB 2) tool for randomized controlled trials. All search strategies were completed on May 16, 2019, and again on October 1, 2019., Findings: Fifteen studies (7 of which were retrospective cohort studies) and 313 patients with iatrogenic FP were included in the systematic review. Most iatrogenic FP (166 patients [53%]) was associated with parotidectomy; traditional PT (ie, facial massage) was the most common intervention (196 patients [63%]). The use of various facial grading systems and inconsistent reporting of outcomes prevented direct comparison of PT types., Conclusions and Relevance: Because of heterogeneity in reported outcomes of facial nerve recovery, definitive conclusions were unable to be made regarding the association between PT and outcomes of iatrogenic FP. Physical therapy probably has benefit and is associated with no harm in patients with iatrogenic FP.

Background: Facial nerve palsy leaves people unable to move muscles on the affected side of their face. Challenges exist in patients accessing facial neuromuscular retraining (NMR), a therapy used to strengthen muscle and improve nerve function. Access to therapy could potentially be improved through the use of digital technology. However, there is limited research available on patients' and clinicians' views about the potential benefits of such telerehabilitation based on their lived experiences of treatment pathways., Objective: This study aims to gather information about facial palsy treatment pathways in the United Kingdom, barriers to accessing NMR, factors influencing patient adherence, measures used to monitor recovery, and the potential value of emerging wearable digital technology., Methods: Separate surveys of patients with facial palsy and facial therapy specialists were conducted. Questionnaires explored treatment pathways and views on telerehabilitation, were co-designed with users, and followed a similar format to enable cross-referencing of responses. A follow-up survey of national specialists investigated methods used to monitor recovery in greater detail. Analysis of quantitative data was conducted allowing for data distribution. Open-text responses were analyzed using thematic content analysis., Results: A total of 216 patients with facial palsy and 25 specialist therapists completed the national surveys. Significant variations were observed in individual treatment pathways. Patients reported an average of 3.27 (SD 1.60) different treatments provided by various specialists, but multidisciplinary team reviews were rare. For patients diagnosed most recently, there was evidence of more rapid initial prescribing of corticosteroids (prednisolone) and earlier referral for NMR therapy. Barriers to NMR referral included difficulties accessing funding, shortage of specialist therapists, and limited awareness of NMR among general practitioners. Patients traveled long distances to reach an NMR specialist center; 9% (8/93) of adults reported traveling ≥115 miles. The thematic content analysis demonstrates positive attitudes to the introduction of digital technology, with similar incentives and barriers identified by both patients and clinicians. The follow-up survey of 28 specialists uncovered variations in the measures currently used to monitor recovery and no agreed definitions of a clinically significant change for any of these. The main barriers to NMR adherence identified by patients and therapists could all be addressed by using suitable real-time digital technology., Conclusions: The study findings provide valuable information on facial palsy treatment pathways and views on the future introduction of digital technology. Possible ways in which emerging sensor-based digital technology can improve rehabilitation and provide more rigorous evidence on effectiveness are described. It is suggested that one legacy of the COVID-19 pandemic will be lower organizational barriers to this introduction of digital technology to assist NMR delivery, especially if cost-effectiveness can be demonstrated., (©Ala Szczepura, Nikki Holliday, Catriona Neville, Karen Johnson, Amir Jahan Khan Khan, Samuel W Oxford, Charles Nduka. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (http://www.jmir.org), 05.10.2020.)

Background: Facial paresis is one of the complications after treatment for vestibular schwannoma (VS). Acupuncture has been used for Bell palsy but not in iatrogenic facial paresis. The objective of this study is to measure the efficacy of using acupuncture for iatrogenic facial nerve palsy and patients' satisfaction., Methods: This is a single-center retrospective study with patients from 2007-2019 received treatment for newly diagnosed or recurrent VS. Some patients who suffered facial paresis after surgery had self-initiated acupuncture. All patients who had facial paresis were included. Their facial nerve status before and immediately after surgery, postoperative 6 months and 12 months, were recorded. Those who received acupuncture also answered 6- and 12-month patient satisfaction surveys over the phone. Adverse effects were also assessed., Results: There were 123 patients in this period. Of these, 29 patients had iatrogenic facial paresis and 23 of them received acupuncture. There was significant improvement of facial paresis for the acupuncture group compared with the nonacupuncture group at 6 and 12 months. More than 80% of patients who received acupuncture were satisfied. They had motor improvement and experienced less pain and tightness. No adverse effects were reported., Conclusions: Acupuncture for postresection VS facial paresis seemed to speed up its recovery. Both patients' recovery and satisfaction were good after acupuncture, and it seemed to be a safe procedure in trained hands., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Several studies have demonstrated a significant benefit of neuromuscular facial training in the rehabilitation of patients with facial palsy. However, printed instructions for home training are often not of optimum quality and associated with low adherence to therapy. Professional guidance, e.g., by occupational therapists, is regarded as being of high quality, but is associated with a high cost burden, particularly in chronic forms of disease., Objective: The idea to develop a smartphone app for facial training arose from the above-described situation. The aim was to provide structured exercises for the mimic muscles in the sense of neuromuscular training with visual feedback via the front camera of the device., Materials and Methods: A native app architecture in iOS was chosen to implement the graphical and content-related concept. In the Apple Xcode (Apple, Cupertino, CA, US) development environment, the app's code was written in the Swift programming language (Apple) and the graphical user interface was created., Results: An app prototype was implemented that provides step-by-step instructions on selected mimic exercises via animated smileys. The duration and speed of the exercise can be varied within a limited range. In the development environment, the correct functionality of both physical and virtual devices was successfully tested., Conclusion: App-based facial training offers attractive opportunities to motivate patients for improved adherence to treatment, which could hypothetically lead to a better outcome. Evaluation of this question is planned in a clinical trial after completion of the development.

The aim of this study was to investigate whether training with an oral screen can improve oral motor function in patients with stroke and peripheral palsy. The participants in the study were eight patients with orofacial dysfunction after stroke, included 7-14 months after onset, and seven patients with peripheral palsy, included 14-28 months after onset. A customized oral screen in acrylic was made for each participant. The screen had a tube around the handle to allow air to pass when measurements were made of the perioral muscle force. When measuring the ability to suck, the hole was sealed with wax. The participants trained with the oral screen two times daily for 5 min. Measurements were made at baseline, after 1 month and thereafter every third month until no further improvement was achieved. Measurements were made with two different instructions, to squeeze and to suck. In the stroke group, muscles around the mouth improved when pouting and smiling; these participants also achieved statistically significant changes when sucking. For the peripheral palsy group, little improvement could be seen when pouting and smiling. However, these patients reported less or no drooling, and the measurements for sucking increased significantly for six of the seven patients. The first recorded significant change was seen in the stroke group after 4 weeks training and in the group with peripheral palsy after 6 weeks. Training with a custom-made oral screen can significantly improve perioral muscle force and the ability to create negative intraoral pressure. The patients reported less leakage in saliva, drink, and food as well as fewer bite injuries and less food accumulation., (© 2020 The Authors. Clinical and Experimental Dental Research published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Dynamic rehabilitation of longstanding facial palsy with damaged, atrophied, or absent facial muscles requires replacement of neural and muscular components. The ideal reconstruction would include a fast-twitch muscle that is small, a reliable donor vessel and nerve, and the potential to provide a natural, synchronous, dentate smile with minimal donor site morbidity. Many flaps have been successfully used historically, but none has produced ideal rehabilitation., Objective: To evaluate the novel sterno-omohyoid, dual-vector flap in rehabilitation of chronic facial paralysis., Results: We performed sterno-omohyoid free tissue transfer for smile reanimation in a 39-year-old male with a history of longstanding right facial palsy following resection of a skull base tumor several years previously. We transferred both muscles with the superior thyroid artery, middle thyroid vein, and ansa cervicalis. The patient developed a dynamic smile by 6 months postoperatively, and he had improved objective facial symmetry., Conclusion: Herein, we demonstrate the first use of the sterno-omohyoid flap for successful facial reanimation. Overall, it is a novel flap in facial reanimation with many advantages over traditional flaps, including the potential to produce a more synchronous, dynamic smile while adding minimal bulk to the face. Future series will better elucidate the potential of the sterno-omohyoid flap.

Background: Peripheral facial nerve palsy (FNP) can have various causes, such as Bell's palsy or after surgery for acoustic neuroma. Rehabilitation is often required but there is no evidence that any rehabilitation approach is more efficacious than another., Aim: The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of neurocognitive-rehabilitative approach through mirror-therapy (MT) and motor-imagery (MI), integrated into the traditional rehabilitation with mime-therapy and myofascial-approach., Design: This study was designed as a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial., Setting: This study took place from January 2016 to June 2018 at the Unit of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation of Umberto I Polyclinic Hospital, Rome, Italy., Population: Twenty-two patients were randomized into two groups: the mirror therapy group (N.=11, MT and MI) and the traditional rehabilitation group (N.=11, mime-therapy and a myofascial-approach)., Methods: Outcome assessments were performed before treatment (T0), after one month (T1=10 session, twice/week), after the second and third months (T2=10 twice/week + 5 of MT+MI one/week and T3=10 twice/week + 5 of MT+MI 1/week), and at the 4-week follow-up (T4=2 months follow-up)., Results: The analysis of the functional evaluations show that both groups experienced progressive improvement T0 to T3, with stabilization of the results at the follow-up. There was a significant difference in House-Brackmann-Scale scores between T0 and follow-up in favor of the experimental group. In terms of quality of life (FaCE scale), total scores and social function items improved in both groups from T0 to T3. The experimental group obtained better results with regard to quality of life and emotional depression., Conclusions: The integrated use of MT and MI is efficacious in the rehabilitation of FNP, improving facial physical function. Further studies are needed to determine the predictive factors of the recovery of facial mimic., Clinical Rehabilitation Impact: The ability of patients with unilateral facial paralysis to recognize and appropriately judge facial expressions and perceive the judgments of others remains underexplored. The likelihood of recovering near-normal facial-function after grade VI facial paralysis is low. Procedures, such as the immediate repair of the facial nerve with an interposed donor graft, might improve facial function in patients with partially injured facial nerves.

A rapid and objective assessment of the severity of facial paralysis allows rehabilitation physicians to choose the optimal rehabilitation treatment regimen for their patients. In this study, patients with facial paralysis were enrolled as study objects, and the eye aspect ratio (EAR) index was proposed for the eye region. The correlation between EAR and the facial nerve grading system 2.0 (FNGS 2.0) score was analyzed to verify the ability of EAR to enhance FNGS 2.0 for the rapid and objective assessment of the severity of the facial paralysis. Firstly, in order to accurately calculate the EAR, we constructed a landmark detection model based on the face images of facial paralysis patients (FP-FLDM). Evaluation results showed that the error rate of facial feature point detection in patients with facial paralysis of FP-FLDM is 17.1%, which was significantly superior to the landmark detection model based on normal face images (NF-FLDM). Secondly, in this study, the Fréchet distance was used to calculate the difference in bilateral EAR of facial paralysis patients and to verify the correlation between this difference and the corresponding FNGS 2.0 score. The results showed that the higher the FNGS 2.0 score , the greater the difference in bilateral EAR. The correlation coefficient between the bilateral EAR difference and the corresponding FNGS 2.0 score was 0.9673, indicating a high correlation. Finally, through a 10-fold crossvalidation, we can know that the accuracy of scoring the eyes of patients with facial paralysis using EAR was 85.7%, which can be used to enhance the objective and rapid assessment of the severity of facial paralysis by FNGS 2.0., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Jialing Feng et al.)

The objective of this study is to clarify when facial palsy patients with lower value of Electroneurography (ENoG) should begin the rehabilitation to prevent the development of facial synkinesis. For this purpose, we examined the relationship between the value of ENoG measured 10-14 days after facial palsy onset and the onset day of the development of oral-ocular synkinesis. Sixteen patients with facial palsy including 11 with Bell's palsy and 5 with Ramsay Hunt syndrome (7 men and 9 women ; 15-73 years old ; mean age, 41.6 years) were enrolled in this study. There was no correlation between ENoG value and the onset day of the development of oral-ocular synkinesis (ρ = .09, p = .73). Oral-ocular synkinesis began to develop in 4.0 ± 0.7 months (mean ± SD ; range : 3.1-5.0 months) after facial palsy onset regardless of ENoG value. In conclusion, ENoG value cannot predict when facial synkinesis develops in patients with facial palsy. We recommend that facial palsy patients with a high risk for the development of synkinesis begin the biofeedback rehabilitation with mirror to prevent the development of facial synkinesis 3 months after facial palsy onset. J. Med. Invest. 67 : 87-89, February, 2020.

This research had the objective of reporting a clinical case in which the rehabilitation of tongue strength with biofeedback strategy was performed. This case report addresses a 20-year-old patient whose orofacial myofunctional evaluation revealed a severe decrease in the force of the anterior third of the tongue and changes in lingual mobility and coordination. The measurement of tongue pressure was performed using the Iowa Oral Performance Instrument (IOPI) during elevation, protrusion and lateralization, and it was verified a reduction in the values ​​obtained in all measured directions, compared with normality patterns. We performed 11 sessions of therapy, with weekly frequency, using a biofeedback strategy that consisted of computer games controlled by the tongue. An instrument embedded in the oral cavity functioned as a joystick as the input method for specific digital games. The patient performed at home the isometric exercises of pressing the tip of the tongue against a spatula, exaggerated retraction of tongue, tongue tapering, and isotonic exercise of touching the commissures and lips alternately, daily. After eight sessions, in relation to the elevation pressure, there was an improvement of 28.6% for the apex and 7.1% for the dorsum. As for protrusion, there was an improvement of 123.5%. In the measurements of left and right lateralization, the values ​​increased 53.8% and 7.4%, respectively. After twelve sessions, it was observed an improvement of 35.7%, 7.4%, 164%, 76.9% and 40.7% in relation to the initial evaluation, for apex elevation, dorsum elevation, protrusion, and lateralization to left and right, respectively. Despite the increase, values ​​recommended in the literature as normal for sex and age were not reached after 12 therapy sessions.

Introduction: Lower motor neurone facial paralysis (LMNFP) is often viewed by the general public and wider non-facial palsy fraternity as a cosmetic issue rather than a functional one. In this article, we sought to determine the severity and frequency of oro-motor dysfunction in LMNFP and assess the benefits of physical therapy and rehabilitation in this cohort., Patients and Methods: A prospective study at our institute was conducted for a one-year period (2015-2016), involving adult patients with LMNFP with significant oro-motor dysfunction. The exclusion criteria were (i) pre-existing oro-motor dysfunction, (ii) within six months of facial palsy onset. The assessment tools used were (i) The Facial Disability Index (FDI), (ii) IPREDD or Inventory of Patient-Reported Eating and Drinking Dysfunction for mastication and (iii) a bespoked Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) based on focus group discussions., Results: Of the 183 new clinic referrals, FDI identified that 14% of patients with LMNFP had significant oro-motor dysfunction. IPREDD analysis showed that 74% of this cohort had masticatory problems, while the VAS indicated significant oro-motor dysfunction as well in those with LMNFP. Following speech and facial therapy, IPREDD-focused symptoms were reduced from 74% to 43% (shown to be significant), while VAS similarly showed a significant reduction in symptoms (two-tailed, paired Student's t-test p < 0.01)., Discussion: Oro-motor function is a significant sequel of facial paralysis. Facial rehabilitation, both physical and psychological, can help reduce patients' distress and improve oro-motor function, without the need for surgical intervention in the first instance., (Crown Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Bilateral anterior opercular syndrome, also known as Foix-Chavany-Marie syndrome, is relatively rare and is characterized by inability of voluntary activation of facial, lingual, pharyngeal, and masticatory muscles with preserved automatic and reflex movements such as smiling and yawning. The syndrome is caused by bilateral lesions of the anterior opercula and results in severe impairments with speech and swallowing. This article describes a patient with bilateral anterior opercular syndrome secondary to embolic strokes and how neuro-rehabilitation improved symptoms.

Objectives: To translate and validate French versions of two health-related quality of life questionnaires for patients with peripheral facial palsy: Facial Disability Index (FDI) and Facial Clinimetric Evaluation (FaCE) scale., Design: Prospective cohort study., Setting: University tertiary referral centre., Participants: A pilot test was performed on 10 subjects (5 patients with facial palsy of more than 1-month duration and 5 normal subjects), and then 67 adult patients with facial palsy were enrolled in the validation study., Main Outcome Measures: Translation of the original questionnaires has followed international guidelines using a forward-backward translation method. A pilot test and a validation study based on the translated questionnaires were performed. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, validity and responsiveness were assessed. Validity was assessed by comparing to SF-36 and Sunnybrook/House-Brackmann grading systems. Subjects answered scales twice within a one-week interval., Results: Sixty-seven patients were enrolled, among which 63 completed scales one week later (retest). For physical and social functions of FDI and FaCE scores, Cronbach's α representing internal consistency was 0.88, 0.70 and 0.89, and test-retest reliability by intra-class correlation coefficients was 0.81, 0.86 and 0.89, respectively. The correlation of facial movement score of FaCE scale was good with Sunnybrook/House-Brackmann grading systems (0.73 and -0.75, P < 0.01). The correlation of social function of FaCE scale was excellent with social function of SF-36 (0.8, P < 0.01)., Conclusions: French versions of FDI and FaCE scale are psychometrically valid. Both questionnaires can be used for clinical studies to assess the quality of life of patients with peripheral facial palsy., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Reanimation of paralysed facial muscles by electrical stimulation has been studied extensively in animal models, but human studies in this field are largely lacking. Twenty-four subjects with a peripheral facial nerve palsy with a median duration of three years were enrolled. We studied activations of four facial muscles with electrical stimulation using surface electrodes. In subjects whose voluntary movement was severely impaired or completely absent, the electrical stimulation produced a movement that was greater in amplitude compared with the voluntary effort in 10 out of 18 subjects in the frontalis muscle, in 5 out of 14 subjects in the zygomaticus major muscle, and in 3 out of 8 subjects in the orbicularis oris muscle. The electrical stimulation produced a stronger blink in 8 subjects out of 22 compared with their spontaneous blinks. The stimulation could produce a better movement even in cases where the muscles were clinically completely paretic, sometimes also in palsies that were several years old, provided that the muscle was not totally denervated. Restoring the function of paralysed facial muscles by electrical stimulation has potential as a therapeutic option in cases where the muscle is clinically paretic but has reinnervation.

Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of facial rehabilitation (FR) in patients with chronic facial nerve paralysis (FNP) and describe factors that predict improved facial nerve function after FR in this patient population., Study Design: Retrospective case review., Setting: Tertiary referral center., Patients: Around 241 patients were referred to a university hospital facial rehabilitation (FR) program for FNP between 1995 and 2016. Seventy-six patients met criteria, defined as diagnosis of FNP ≥12 months prior to initiation of FR., Interventions: Each received at least two sessions of directed FR by a single therapist. Techniques employed: neuromuscular retraining, stretching/massage, and active exercise., Main Outcomes: Variables affecting outcomes were analyzed to determine association with success of FR as measured by improvement in Facial Grading System (FGS) scale., Results: Onset of FNP to initiation of FR ranged 12 to 384 months (mean latency = 64.7 months). All patients, age 20 to 89, showed improvement in FGS after FR (mean, 16.54 points, SD 9.35). Positive predictors of FGS improvement after therapy (p-values < 0.05): increased the number of therapy sessions, right side of face being treated for FNP, lower starting FGS score. When controlling for these important variables, time from diagnosis to initiation of therapy was not significantly associated with improvement in FGS score., Conclusion: Facial rehabilitation was associated with improved FGS score regardless of patient age, gender, or latency to facial rehabilitation. As a noninvasive treatment option with positive outcomes, it should be offered to patients with facial nerve paralysis regardless of chronicity.

Although central facial paresis (CFP) is a major symptom of stroke, there is a lack of studies on the motor and non-motor disabilities in stroke patients. A prospective cohort study was performed at admission for inpatient rehabilitation and discharge of post-stroke phase of 112 patients (44% female, median age: 64 years, median Barthel index: 70) with CFP. Motor function was evaluated using House-Brackmann grading, Sunnybrook grading and Stennert Index. Automated action unit (AU) analysis was performed to analyze mimic function in detail. Non-motor function was assessed using the Facial Disability Index (FDI) and the Facial Clinimetric Evaluation (FaCE). Median interval from stroke to rehabilitation was 21 days. Rehabilitation lasted 20 days. House-Brackmann grading was ≥ grade III for 79% at admission. AU activation in the lower face was significantly lower in patients with right hemispheric infarction compared to left hemispheric infarction (all p < 0.05). Median total FDI and FaCE score were 46.5 and 69, respectively. Facial grading and FDI/FaCE scores improved during inpatient rehabilitation (all p < 0.05). There was a significant increase of the activation of AU12 (Zygomaticus major muscle), AU13 (Levator anguli oris muscle), and AU24 (Orbicularis oris muscle) during inpatient rehabilitation (all p < 0.05). Multivariate analysis revealed that activation of AU10 (Levator labii superioris), AU12, AU17 (Depressor labii), and AU 38 (Nasalis) were independent predictors for better quality of life. These results demonstrate that CFP has a significant impact on patient's quality of life. Therapy of CFP with focus on specific AUs should be part of post-stroke rehabilitation.

Ineffective eyelid closure can pose a serious risk of injury to the ocular surface and eye. In cases of eyelid paresis, systematic examination of the eye and ocular adnexa will direct appropriate interventions. Specifically, 4 distinct periorbital regions should be independently assessed: eyebrow, upper eyelid, ocular surface, and lower eyelid. Corneal exposure can lead to dehydration, thinning, scarring, infection, perforation, and blindness. Long-term sequelae following facial nerve palsy may also include epiphora, gustatory lacrimation, and synkinesis., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This article describes the most widely used clinician-graded and patient-reported outcome measures, and describes facial rehabilitation strategies for acute and chronic facial palsy, and rehabilitation following dynamic facial reanimation surgery. The multimodality rehabilitation of the facial palsy patient is determined by the extent of facial nerve injury, specific functional deficits, the presence of synkinesis, and the patient's individual goals. Appropriate intervention, including patient education, soft tissue mobilization, neuromuscular reeducation, and chemodenervation, decreases facial tension and improves facial muscle motor control, physical function, facial expression, and quality of life., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: The aim of this study was to describe the current state of physical therapy for facial nerve palsy, the evidence basis for these interventions and how therapy can be integrated with other medical and surgical interventions for facial nerve palsy, as it applies to ophthalmologists, oculoplastic surgeons and other specialists., Recent Findings: Many studies indicate that physical therapy is effective for the rehabilitation of patients with facial nerve palsy and can be used synergistically with interventions administered by physicians, such as targeted botulinum toxin injections. The field is limited by a relative paucity of high-quality randomized controlled trials. Alternative therapies including Brief Electrical Stimulation continue to be studied; however, they lack a scientific rationale and, anecdotally, appear to cause more problems in cases of incomplete facial nerve recovery., Summary: Physical therapy, specifically neuromuscular retraining, is a useful intervention for treating facial nerve palsy. Care for these patients is best delivered in a multidisciplinary setting in which physical therapy and medical or surgical interventions can be closely integrated. Further study aimed at standardizing physical therapy and optimizing the integration of this with other treatments for facial nerve palsy are needed.

Objective: To investigate factors affecting the effect of physical rehabilitation therapy for synkinesis as a sequela to facial nerve palsy., Methods: A total of 37 patients with peripheral facial nerve palsy in Teine-Keijinkai Hospital were enrolled in this study. All patients showed synkinesis at 6 months after the onset of facial nerve palsy and were instructed in physical rehabilitation by expert staff from their first visit. The degree of synkinesis was evaluated at 6, 9 and 12 months after the onset of facial nerve palsy based on Sunnybrook facial grading system score and asymmetry in eye opening width. The patients were divided into two groups by age, gender, cause of palsy, electroneurography (ENoG) value, onset of synkinesis, initial treatment and timing of the start of physical rehabilitation., Results: Female patients and younger patients did not show any deterioration in synkinesis. Patients in the lower ENoG group and the later onset of synkinesis group showed significant deterioration in synkinesis after the 6th month from onset of facial palsy., Conclusion: Physical rehabilitation was shown to prevent significant deterioration in synkinesis in female and younger patients with facial nerve palsy. Careful follow-up with regard to synkinesis is required in cases in which the facial nerve damage is thought to be severe., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Importance: Current recommendations envisage early surgical exploration for complete facial nerve paralysis associated with temporal bone fracture and unfavorable electrophysiologic features (response to electroneuronography, <5%). However, the evidence base for such a practice is weak, with the potential for spontaneous improvement being unknown, and the expected results from alternative nonsurgical treatment also undefined., Objective: To document the results of nonsurgical treatment for posttraumatic complete facial paralysis with undisplaced temporal bone fracture and unfavorable electrophysiologic features., Design, Setting, and Participants: Prospective cohort study recruiting from April 2010 to April 2013 at a tertiary care university hospital. Follow-up continued until 9 months or until complete recovery if earlier. Study group included 28 patients with head injury-associated complete unilateral facial nerve paralysis with unfavorable results of electroneuronography (<5% response) with or without undisplaced temporal bone fracture. Undisplaced temporal bone fractures were documented in 26 patients (24 longitudinal fractures and 2 transverse fractures)., Interventions: Patients received prednisolone, 1 mg/kg, for 3 weeks combined with clinical monitoring every 2 weeks and electromyography monitoring every 4 weeks. As per study protocol, surgical exploration was limited to patients demonstrating motor end plate degeneration on results of electromyography, or having no improvement until 18 weeks., Main Outcomes and Measures: Facial nerve function was evaluated by the House-Brackmann grading system; Forehead, Eye, Mouth, and Associated defect grading system; and the modified Adour system. Observations were completed at 40 weeks., Results: Among the 28 patients in the study (3 women and 25 men; mean [SD] age, 32.2 [8.7] years), facial nerve recovery with conservative treatment alone was noted in all patients. No recovery was seen in any patient at the initial 4-week review. The first signs of clinical recovery were noted in 4 patients by 8 weeks, in 27 patients by 12 weeks, and in all patients by 20 weeks. No patient required surgical exploration. At 40 weeks, 27 patients recovered to House-Brackmann grade I/II and 1 patient to grade III. All 24 patients with longitudinal fractures had grade I/II recovery., Conclusions and Relevance: For undisplaced temporal bone fractures, nonsurgical treatment leads to near-universal recovery to House-Brackmann grade I/II and is superior to reported surgical results. Recovery is delayed and usually first manifests at 8 to 12 weeks after the fracture. In the current era of high-resolution computed tomography, surgical exploration should not be first-line treatment for undisplaced longitudingal temporal bone fractures associated with complete facial nerve paralysis and unfavorable electrophysiologic features.

Background: We assessed the recovery of 2 face transplantation patients with measures of complexity during neuromuscular rehabilitation. Cognitive rehabilitation methods and functional electrical stimulation were used to improve facial emotional expressions of full-face transplantation patients for 5 months. Rehabilitation and analyses were conducted at approximately 3 years after full facial transplantation in the patient group. We report complexity analysis of surface electromyography signals of these two patients in comparison to the results of 10 healthy individuals., Methods: Facial surface electromyography data were collected during 6 basic emotional expressions and 4 primary facial movements from 2 full-face transplantation patients and 10 healthy individuals to determine a strategy of functional electrical stimulation and understand the mechanisms of rehabilitation. A new personalized rehabilitation technique was developed using the wavelet packet method. Rehabilitation sessions were applied twice a month for 5 months. Subsequently, motor and functional progress was assessed by comparing the fuzzy entropy of surface electromyography data against the results obtained from patients before rehabilitation and the mean results obtained from 10 healthy subjects., Results: At the end of personalized rehabilitation, the patient group showed improvements in their facial symmetry and their ability to perform basic facial expressions and primary facial movements. Similarity in the pattern of fuzzy entropy for facial expressions between the patient group and healthy individuals increased. Synkinesis was detected during primary facial movements in the patient group, and one patient showed synkinesis during the happiness expression. Synkinesis in the lower face region of one of the patients was eliminated for the lid tightening movement., Conclusions: The recovery of emotional expressions after personalized rehabilitation was satisfactory to the patients. The assessment with complexity analysis of sEMG data can be used for developing new neurorehabilitation techniques and detecting synkinesis after full-face transplantation.

Background: This study evaluates the effect of incobotulinumtoxinA in the acute and chronic phases of facial nerve palsy after neurosurgical interventions., Methods: Patients received incobotulinumtoxinA injections (active treatment group) or standard rehabilitation treatment (control group). Functional efficacy was assessed using House-Brackmann, Yanagihara System and Sunnybrook Facial Grading scales, and Facial Disability Index self-assessment., Results: Significant improvements on all scales were seen after 1month of incobotulinumtoxinA treatment (active treatment group, р<0.05), but only after 3months of rehabilitation treatment (control group, р<0.05). At 1 and 2years post-surgery, the prevalence of synkinesis was significantly higher in patients in the control group compared with those receiving incobotulinumtoxinA treatment (р<0.05 and р<0.001, respectively)., Conclusions: IncobotulinumtoxinA treatment resulted in significant improvements in facial symmetry in patients with facial nerve injury following neurosurgical interventions. Treatment was effective for the correction of the compensatory hyperactivity of mimic muscles on the unaffected side that develops in the acute period of facial nerve palsy, and for the correction of synkinesis in the affected side that develops in the long-term period. Appropriate dosing and patient education to perform exercises to restore mimic muscle function should be considered in multimodal treatment., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: The Sunnybrook facial grading system (SFGS) is frequently applied to evaluate facial function in patients with facial palsy, but still now there is no validated German version of this evaluation sheet. Methods: The original English version of the SFGS was translated and validated in accordance with international standards. The interrater reliability from 5 raters (speech therapy students) and the intrarater reliability from repeated ratings at 2 time points using video tapes of 18 patients with different types of facial palsy were analyzed by calculating the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and other reliability measures. Results: ICC for the interrater reliability for the 4 components of the SFGS, resting symmetry, symmetry during voluntary movements, synkinesis, and the composite score were ICC 0.845; 0.903; 0.731 and 0.918, respectively, for the first evaluation and ICC 0.881; 0.932; 0.818 and 0.940, respectively, for the second evaluation. The mean intrarater reliability for the 4 SFGS scores was ICC=0.791; 0.906; 0.770 and 0.905. Discussion: There is now a valid German version of the SFGS available that can be used even by novices. The German version is suitable for evaluation of facial palsies in clinical routine and studies to allow a better comparability of German patients with results of the international literature., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Patients with facial palsy (FP) not only suffer from their facial movement disorder, but also from social and psychological disabilities. These can be assessed by patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) like the quality-of-life Short-Form 36 Item Questionnaire (SF36) or FP-specific instruments like the Facial Clinimetric Evaluation Scale (FaCE) or the Facial Disability Index (FDI). Not much is known about factors influencing PROMs in patients with FP. We identified predictors for baseline SF36, FaCE, and FDI scoring in 256 patients with unilateral peripheral FP using univariate correlation and multivariate linear regression analyses. Mean age was 52 ± 18 years. 153 patients (60 %) were female. 90 patients (31 %) and 176 patients (69 %) were first seen <90 or >90 days after onset, respectively, i.e., with acute or chronic FP. House-Brackmann grading was 3.9 ± 1.4. FaCE subscores varied from 41 ± 28 to 71 ± 26, FDI scores from 65 ± 20 to 70 ± 22, and SF36 domains from 52 ± 20 to 80 ± 24. Older age, female gender, higher House-Brackmann grading, and initial assessment >90 days after onset were independent predictors for lower FaCE subscores and partly for lower FDI subscores (all p < 0.05). Older age and female gender were best predictors for lower results in SF36 domains. Comorbidity was associated with lower SF General health perception and lower SF36 Emotional role (all p < 0.05). Specific PROMs reveal that older and female patients and patients with chronic FP suffer particularly from motor and non-motor disabilities related to FP. Comorbidity unrelated to the FP could additionally impact the quality of life of patients with FP.

Background: Only few studies have considered the effects of the combined treatment with onabotulinumtoxinA (BoNT-A) injections and biofeedback (BFB) rehabilitation in the recovery of postparetic facial synkinesis (PPFS)., Aim: To explore the presence of a persistent improvement in facial function out of the pharmacological effect of BoNT-A in subjects with established PPFS, after repeated sessions of BoNT-A injections combined with an educational facial training program using mirror biofeedback (BFB) exercises. Secondary objective was to investigate the trend of the presumed persistent improvement., Study Design: Case-series study., Setting: Outpatient Clinic of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Unit., Population: Twenty-seven patients (22 females; mean age 45±16 years) affected by an established peripheral facial palsy, treated with a minimum of three BoNT-A injections in association with mirror BFB rehabilitation. The interval between consecutive BoNT-A injections was at least five months., Methods: At baseline and before every BoNT-A injection+mirror BFB session (when the effect of the previous BoNT-A injection had vanished), patients were assessed with the Italian version of Sunnybrook Facial Grading System (SB). The statistical analysis considered SB composite and partial scores before each treatment session compared to the baseline scores., Results: A significant improvement of the SB composite and partial scores was observed until the fourth session. Considering the "Symmetry of Voluntary Movement" partial score, the main improvement was observed in the muscles of the lower part of the face., Conclusions: In a chronic stage of postparetic facial synkinesis, patients may benefit from a combined therapy with repeated BoNT-A injections and an educational facial training program with mirror BFB exercises, gaining an improvement of the facial function up to the fourth session. This improvement reflects the acquired ability to use facial muscle correctly. It doesn't involve the injected muscles but those trained with mirror biofeedback exercises and it persists also when BoNT-A action has vanished., Clinical Rehabilitation Impact: The combined therapy with repeated BoNT-A injections and an educational facial training program using mirror BFB exercises may be useful in the motor recovery of the muscles of the lower part of the face not injected but trained.