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Non-PR, IFPRI1; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies, Foresight and Policy Modeling (FPM); Transformation Strategies, This factsheet provides a brief description of the economic structure and the size of the agrifood system of Odisha, an Indian state. The agrifood system comprises primary agriculture, food processing, agrifood trade, food services, and input supplies. We have constructed a multistate social accounting matrix (SAM) for the year 2017/18 to understand the size of Odisha’s agrifood system in comparison with the rest of India.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies, Foresight and Policy Modeling (FPM); Transformation Strategies, This factsheet provides a brief description of the economic structure and the size of the agrifood system of Uttar Pradesh (UP), an Indian state. The agrifood system comprises primary agriculture, food processing, agrifood trade, food services, and input supplies. We have constructed a multistate social accounting matrix (SAM) for the year 2017/18 to understand the size of UP’s agrifood system in comparison with the rest of India.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies, Foresight and Policy Modeling (FPM); Transformation Strategies, This factsheet provides a brief description of the economic structure and the size of the agrifood system of Bihar, an Indian state. The agrifood system comprises primary agriculture, food processing, agrifood trade, food services, and input supplies. We have constructed a multistate social accounting matrix (SAM) for the year 2017/18 to understand the size of Bihar’s agrifood system in comparison with the rest of India.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; CACCI, Markets, Trade, and Institutions (MTI); Food and Nutrition Policy, Colombia has focused on deepening the understanding of its vulnerability and risk to climate change. The Third National Communication on Climate Change (TCNCC) of 2017 shows that 13% of the departments are in the very high category of climate vulnerability. In addition, all of its territory has some level of threat due to climate change and 56% of the departments are in the very high threat category, as shown in its NDC 2020. One of the major concerns is that most of the country's emissions are generated by three important sectors: Agriculture, Land Use Change and Forestry, and Energy. These sectors are also highly vulnerable to climate impacts. The country has developed a significant number of policies and programs focused on climate change mitigation and adaptation, which take into account all stakeholders involved, from the public sector to the private sector and civil society recognizing that the implementation of the actions that the country has established is the responsibility of all actors.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; CACCI; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, Development Strategies and Governance (DSG); Transformation Strategies, Tajikistan, one of the least urbanized countries in Central Asia, is prone to natural disasters, disruptions in rainfall, rising temperatures, reductions in glacial cover, and extreme weather events. Agriculture and energy sectors are the highest emitters of greenhouse gases. The Government of the Republic of Tajikistan acknowledges the problems and risks posed by climate change and is working to address them. One critical step is the submission of the updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in 2021, which proposes efforts to support sustainable and efficient development, taking into consideration climate change and related environmental and socioeconomic challenges for the period 2020–2030. An NDC Implementation Plan was developed last year, which presents the key steps to be taken and the implementation period for each. The Committee for Environmental Protection under the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan (CEP) is the authorized policymaking and coordination body for climate change related activities and has created an NDC Secretariat for administrative and stakeholder engagement support. Some of the main challenges in efficiently adopting climate change measures include legal and institutional obstacles and lack of sufficient and appropriate technical capacity in the country.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; CACCI; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance, Markets, Trade, and Institutions (MTI); Food and Nutrition Policy, As a coastal and low-lying country, Guyana is exposed to many climatic hazards, as are the islands in the region. Risks such as flooding, sea level rise, and drought directly impact its development and population. This is due to the increased spread of diseases, contamination of water sources, damage to the agricultural sector, and destruction of forests. Forestry and energy are identified as priority sectors for climate adaptation and mitigation. The agriculture and water sectors can also play an important role in this process. To achieve the goals proposed in its NDC, Guyana has made efforts to create or improve policies and programs. These developments take into consideration the policy needs of the local population and the fact that the main emitting sectors are also vital for the country's economic development and are highly vulnerable to climatic conditions. Approximately 96% of emissions are generated by three specific sectors: land-use change and forestry (as the largest emitter), energy, and finally agriculture.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; CACCI; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance, Markets, Trade, and Institutions (MTI); Food and Nutrition Policy, Brazil has made significant advances in the fight against climate change. The country is highly susceptible to climate impacts due to its geographic location and diverse territory. This territory is exposed to floods, earthquakes, landslides, droughts, and diseases, which put the population and national development at risk. Most greenhouse gas emissions come from three major economic activities: agriculture, land use, and energy. These sectors are highly vulnerable to climate change as they depend on natural resources to function. The country has been working on the creation and implementation of a variety of instruments to reduce emissions and address climate impacts. These instruments take into consideration the public, private and civil society sectors.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; CACCI; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance, Markets, Trade, and Institutions (MTI); Food and Nutrition Policy, Ecuador has great climatic variability, due to its geological diversity and variety in altitude and terrain. The country has two seasons: rainy and dry. Ecuador faces a variety of climatic risks such as floods and landslides caused by the increase in annual rainfall during phenomena such as El Niño, as well as droughts that weaken soils and affect agricultural processes. Likewise, there are effects caused by rising sea levels, melting glaciers, and vulnerability of water sources. The sectors that generate the greatest emissions in the country are energy, land use, and agriculture, which are vital for social and economic development. It is important to highlight the efforts made by the country through public policies and other instruments focused on the fight against climate change, which are aligned with its constitution and international agreements. In this way, Ecuador has a bases and guidelines for the development of strategies with an interdisciplinary approach and considering all the actors.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; CACCI; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance, Markets, Trade, and Institutions (MTI); Food and Nutrition Policy, Peru faces a variety of climate risks just like the rest of the countries in the region. Being a country rich in biodiversity and climatic variety, Peru experiences different climatic impacts, which have been increasing in severity over time. These include increased rainfall, increased periods of drought, and soil degradation, among many other effects. For this reason, Peru has implemented numerous measures to fight against the effects of climate change. These measures focus on sectors vital to the development of the country, along with industries and services that are most directly affected by climate change. Actions have utilized international and national instruments strengthened for the current climate crisis, always taking into consideration all parts of the system by carrying out inter-institutional and multilevel interventions.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; CACCI; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply, Markets, Trade, and Institutions (MTI); Food and Nutrition Policy; Development Strategies and Governance (DSG); Transformation Strategies, Papua New Guinea ranks among the countries most at risk to natural disasters and climate change (World Bank, 2021). Increased exposure to natural hazards such as coastal and inland river flooding as well as landslides are likely to intensify in PNG, affecting agriculture production patterns and household livelihoods. In addition, the IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report suggests that Pacific coral reefs face a negative outlook under all climate change scenarios, whereby increased coral bleaching will have significant negative impacts on the health of coastal fisheries in PNG (Nurse et al., 2014).

Non-PR, IFPRI1; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; MaSSP, Development Strategies and Governance (DSG); Transformation Strategies, Highlights • There is an operational agricultural cooperative in every tenth community in Malawi, but they are not well utilized to access markets or services. • Almost no farmers (0.6 percent in 2019/20) receive extension advice through cooperatives. • Although an increasing share of farmers engage in input and output markets, few do so through cooperatives. • Few farmers buy inputs on credit in general, and almost none receive credit from cooperatives. • Farmers who buy inputs from cooperatives do not pay less than farmers who buy inputs elsewhere. • Farmers who sell their produce to cooperatives also do not obtain better prices than farmers who sell to other buyers.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, Innovation Policy and Scaling (IPS); Transformation Strategies, Bolivia’s agricultural R&D spending is characterized by considerable year-toyear fluctuations. The costs of R&D programs, running the day-to-day operations of laboratories, and muchneeded capital investments are chiefly funded by donors and development banks. Dependence on this type of funding—which by nature is volatile and ad hoc—makes the country somewhat vulnerable to funding shocks. Bolivia’s agricultural research spending has not kept pace with growth in agricultural output. The country’s agricultural research intensity ratio—that is agricultural research spending as a percentage of agricultural GDP—halved from 1.0 to 0.5 percent during 2015–2020. Bolivia’s agricultural research investment is too low to effectively address farm productivity challenges of the rural poor and threats posed by climate change. Compared with most countries in South America, Bolivian agricultural R&D agencies employ relatively few researchers with PhD degrees. In addition, a considerable portion of the most highly qualified researchers are set to retire in the coming decade. The country will need to recruit and train the next generation of agricultural researchers without delay and provide the necessary conditions to maintain their commitment over time.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, Innovation Policy and Scaling (IPS); Transformation Strategies, The IDB-funded PFPAS program has provided an important financial injection into Nicaragua’s agricultural research system during 2013–2018. The program has made important strides in rehabilitating some of INTA’s run-down research infrastructure, in offering degree and short-term training to research staff, and in strengthening linkages between agricultural research and producers. Notwithstanding the important achievements of PFPAS, Nicaragua’s agricultural R&D investment levels remain too low to provide the necessary technological solutions to enhance agricultural productivity and reduce rural poverty. As of 2020, the country invested just 0.22 percent of its agricultural GDP in agricultural research, which is insufficient to effectively address the many challenges the agricultural sector is facing. Nicaragua lacks a critical mass of highly qualified agricultural researchers. Building on the achievements of PFPAS, continued and accelerated training of young researchers to the MSc and PhD level remains critical. In addition, local university programs in agricultural sciences need to be strengthened so that more scientists have the opportunity to pursue higher level degrees in-country.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, Innovation Policy and Scaling (IPS); Transformation Strategies, The IDB-funded PFPAS program has provided an important financial injection into Nicaragua’s agricultural research system during 2013–2018. The program has made important strides in rehabilitating some of INTA’s run-down research infrastructure, in offering degree and short-term training to research staff, and in strengthening linkages between agricultural research and producers. Notwithstanding the important achievements of PFPAS, Nicaragua’s agricultural R&D investment levels remain too low to provide the necessary technological solutions to enhance agricultural productivity and reduce rural poverty. As of 2020, the country invested just 0.22 percent of its agricultural GDP in agricultural research, which is insufficient to effectively address the many challenges the agricultural sector is facing. Nicaragua lacks a critical mass of highly qualified agricultural researchers. Building on the achievements of PFPAS, continued and accelerated training of young researchers to the MSc and PhD level remains critical. In addition, local university programs in agricultural sciences need to be strengthened so that more scientists have the opportunity to pursue higher level degrees in-country.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, Innovation Policy and Scaling (IPS); Transformation Strategies, Bolivia’s agricultural R&D spending is characterized by considerable year-toyear fluctuations. The costs of R&D programs, running the day-to-day operations of laboratories, and muchneeded capital investments are chiefly funded by donors and development banks. Dependence on this type of funding—which by nature is volatile and ad hoc—makes the country somewhat vulnerable to funding shocks. Bolivia’s agricultural research spending has not kept pace with growth in agricultural output. The country’s agricultural research intensity ratio—that is agricultural research spending as a percentage of agricultural GDP—halved from 1.0 to 0.5 percent during 2015–2020. Bolivia’s agricultural research investment is too low to effectively address farm productivity challenges of the rural poor and threats posed by climate change. Compared with most countries in South America, Bolivian agricultural R&D agencies employ relatively few researchers with PhD degrees. In addition, a considerable portion of the most highly qualified researchers are set to retire in the coming decade. The country will need to recruit and train the next generation of agricultural researchers without delay and provide the necessary conditions to maintain their commitment over time.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; MaSSP; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance, Development Strategies and Governance (DSG); Transformation Strategies, This is the first Education Key Facts Sheet in a series of Key Facts sheets that IFPRI produces based on the Integrated Household Surveys (IHS). The purpose of the series is to present data relevant to key policy issues on agriculture, food systems, and development topics in Malawi. Other Key Facts Sheets are available on our website at massp.ifpri.info.

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Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, Panama’s agricultural research spending has gradually increased during 2004–2020, at an average rate of 2.6 percent per year. Expenditure levels peaked in 2017, but they have remained relatively high since. The 2017 peak can to a large extent be explained by the construction and equipment of IDIAP’s new headquarters. Panama outperforms many of its Central American counterparts in a number of key agricultural R&D indicators. Compared to many of its neighbors, Panama invests a considerably higher proportion of its agricultural output in agricultural research; it employs a relatively high number of scientists with PhD degrees; and it generates an aboveaverage flow of research outputs in the form of publications, new crop varieties, and new agricultural technologies. A very large proportion of Panama’s PhD-qualified agricultural researchers is approaching retirement age, posing a significant problem for the future conduct and continuity of agricultural research. The country will need to recruit and train scientists without delay, and provide the necessary remuneration, working conditions, and incentives to maintain their commitment over time.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, Agricultural R&D expenditures in Honduras demonstrate considerable year-to-year fluctuations, not in the least due to the relatively short-term nature of donor funding on which some of the country’s principal agricultural R&D agencies are heavily dependent. In 2020, the country invested only 0.20 percent of its agricultural GDP in agricultural research, which is too low to effectively address farm productivity and other challenges of the rural poor. Given limited government support to agricultural R&D in Honduras, nongovernmental agencies play an important role in the country’s national agricultural research system. FHIA is the country’s largest agricultural R&D agency, and it is funded through a combination of interest from an endowment fund, donor contributions, and revenues from the provision of laboratory and other services. Despite a gradual increase in the number of agricultural researchers over the past decade, most Honduran researchers are only qualified to the BSc-level. Few researchers have PhD degrees, and many of those who do are approaching retirement age. Limited funding, along with few national postgraduate training programs, constrain the professional development of the large number of BSc-qualified researchers.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, Costa Rica has the largest agricultural research system in Central America, both in terms of investment and human resource capacity. Costa Rica stands out from other Central American countries in that its higher education section plays a preponderant role in the country’s agricultural research system.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, Despite the fact that agriculture plays a key role in the country’s economy and employment, Ecuador’s agricultural research system is very small compared with other countries its size. The country’s number of agricultural researchers per capita and per farmer are among South America’s lowest. Ecuador also stands out in that a sizable portion of the time of people in official research positions is spent on nonresearch activities. Ecuador’s agricultural research expenditures nearly halved during 2015–2020 as a result of severe shock measures by the Moreno government to reduce the country’s debt and public deficit. Spending just 0.1 1 percent of its AgGDP on agricultural R&D in 2020, Ecuador’s R&D investment is far too low to effectively address the farm productivity challenges of the rural poor and the issues of soil erosion and desertification posed by climate change. Compared with most countries in South America, Ecuadorian agricultural R&D agencies employ relatively few researchers with PhD degrees. In addition, a considerable portion of the most highly qualified researchers will be retiring in the coming years. The country will need to recruit and train the next generation of agricultural researchers without delay, and provide the necessary conditions to maintain their commitment over time.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, The Dominican Republic’s investment in agricultural R&D has been rather stagnant over the past decade (in inflation-adjusted terms). Measured against agricultural GDP, however, there has been a steady drop in investment levels. In 2020, the Dominican Republic spent just 0.18 percent of its agricultural GDP on agricultural R&D, representing among the lowest levels in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Dominican Republic lacks a critical mass of PhD-qualified agricultural researchers. Many scientists with PhD degrees are currently in their sixties and fast approaching the mandatory retirement age. Recruiting and training the next generation of researchers is an urgent priority. However, low public-sector salaries and limited incentives are impeding factors to attracting, motivating, and retaining young talent. Unlike their colleagues at most national agricultural research insti-tutes across Latin America, a high share of IDIAF researchers hold dual appointments as professors or resear-chers at universities or the private sector. This situation discourages universities to create permanent positions for academic staff. It also impedes the fostering of a true agri-cultural R&D ecosystem with multiple independent actors that collaborate and compete on an equal footing.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, Research has the potential to provide the necessary technological solutions to enable Guatemala to reverse declining agricultural productivity and achieve food security. Yet, the country’s agricultural R&D spending has declined in recent years. In 2020, Guatemala invested only 0.10 percent of its agricultural GDP in agricultural research, which is among the lowest ratios in the world. An absence of PhD-qualified researchers and the inability to recruit new ones—due to a lack of funding and of competitive salary and benefit packages—have constrained ICTA’s human resource capacity and, ultimately, its ability to fulfill its mandate. The need for highly qualified researchers will become even more critical over time because a significant number of experienced MSc-qualified researchers are set to retire in the next decade. Outdated equipment and facilities are increasingly compromising the volume and quality of research outputs. If agricultural R&D in Guatemala is to become more effective, higher levels of funding must be secured. Complementary private funding should be attracted from value chains other than sugarcane and coffee. Success in securing private funding for research requires a more enabling policy environment, including tax incentives and the protection of intellectual property rights.

Non-PR, 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; IFPRI1, EPTD, MitigatePlus: Research for Low-Emission Food Systems is one of the Research Initiatives in CGIAR’s new research portfolio that will deliver science and innovation to transform food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Mitigate+ focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions from food systems and the predicted consequences of climate change on sustainable development and social equity. The initiative expects to help countries reduce emissions by 1.1 gigatons (6.5%) by 2030. An estimated 8 million people will benefit from these reduced emissions and from the associated co-benefits over the Initiative’s ten-year lifespan.

Non-PR, 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all; POSHAN; IFPRI1, PHND; SAR

Non-PR, IFPRI1; POSHAN; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all, PHND; SAR

Non-PR, IFPRI1; POSHAN; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all, PHND; SAR

Non-PR, IFPRI1; POSHAN; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all, SAR; PHND

Non-PR, IFPRI1; POSHAN; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all, PHND; SAR

Non-PR, 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all; POSHAN; IFPRI1, SAR; PHND

Non-PR, IFPRI1; POSHAN; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all, SAR; PHND

Non-PR, 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all; POSHAN; IFPRI1, PHND; SAR

Non-PR, IFPRI1; POSHAN; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all, SAR; PHND

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; MaSSP; 3 Building Inclusive and Efficient Markets, Trade Systems, and Food Industry; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; G Cross-cutting gender theme, DSGD, Across a wide range of inequality measures, survey data measure lower levels of inequality in 2019/20 compared to a decade earlier in 2010/11. The latest survey data put Malawi’s Gini Coefficient at 0.38. The 20% richest households consume about half of the country’s total consumption. The poorest 20% account for only 6% of total consumption. Differences between districts or regions are not the primary contributors to inequality. Differences across households within the same region or district contribute much more to total inequality. Similarly, there is significant inequality among households with heads of similar education levels and among those with similar occupations. These within-group differences contribute more to inequality than the across-group differences. In all the periods under analysis, urban households consumed around twice the consumption of their rural counterparts.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; MaSSP; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies, DSGD, This is the third in a series of Key Facts sheets that IFPRI has produced based on the fifth Malawi Integrated Household Survey of 2019/20. The purpose of the series is to present data relevant to key policy issues on agriculture, food systems, and development topics in Malawi.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; MaSSP; 2 Promoting Healthy Diets and Nutrition for all; Capacity Strengthening, DSGD, This is the fourth in a series of Key Facts sheets that IFPRI is producing based on the Integrated Household Surveys (IHS). The purpose of the series is to present data relevant to key policy issues on agriculture, food systems, and development topics in Malawi. Other Key Facts Sheets are available on our website at massp.ifpri.info.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, This factsheet presents recent data on the agricultural research system of Ecuador, primarily focusing on key financial, human resource, institutional, and output indicators, while also highlighting relevant trends, challenges, and institutional changes.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, Panama’s agricultural research spending has gradually increased during 2004–2020, at an average rate of 2.6 percent per year. Expenditure levels peaked in 2017, but they have remained relatively high since. The 2017 peak can to a large extent be explained by the construction and equipment of IDIAP’s new headquarters. Panama outperforms many of its Central American counterparts in a number of key agricultural R&D indicators. Compared to many of its neighbors, Panama invests a considerably higher proportion of its agricultural output in agricultural research; it employs a relatively high number of scientists with PhD degrees; and it generates an aboveaverage flow of research outputs in the form of publications, new crop varieties, and new agricultural technologies. A very large proportion of Panama’s PhD-qualified agricultural researchers is approaching retirement age, posing a significant problem for the future conduct and continuity of agricultural research. The country will need to recruit and train scientists without delay, and provide the necessary remuneration, working conditions, and incentives to maintain their commitment over time.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, This factsheet presents recent data on the agricultural research system of Belize, primarily focusing on key financial, human resource, institutional, and output indicators, while also highlighting relevant trends, challenges, and institutional changes.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, This factsheet presents recent data on the agricultural research system of Guatemala, primarily focusing on key financial, human resource, institutional, and output indicators, while also highlighting relevant trends, challenges, and institutional changes.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, Agricultural R&D expenditures in Honduras demonstrate considerable year-to-year fluctuations, not in the least due to the relatively short-term nature of donor funding on which some of the country’s principal agricultural R&D agencies are heavily dependent. In 2020, the country invested only 0.20 percent of its agricultural GDP in agricultural research, which is too low to effectively address farm productivity and other challenges of the rural poor. Given limited government support to agricultural R&D in Honduras, nongovernmental agencies play an important role in the country’s national agricultural research system. FHIA is the country’s largest agricultural R&D agency, and it is funded through a combination of interest from an endowment fund, donor contributions, and revenues from the provision of laboratory and other services. Despite a gradual increase in the number of agricultural researchers over the past decade, most Honduran researchers are only qualified to the BSc-level. Few researchers have PhD degrees, and many of those who do are approaching retirement age. Limited funding, along with few national postgraduate training programs, constrain the professional development of the large number of BSc-qualified researchers.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, Costa Rica has the largest agricultural research system in Central America, both in terms of investment and human resource capacity. Costa Rica stands out from other Central American countries in that its higher education section plays a preponderant role in the country’s agricultural research system. Despite spending more than other Central American on agricultural R&D in absolute terms, Costa Rica’s investment levels relative to agricultural GDP rank second in the region behind Panama. In 2020, Costa Rica spent 0.87 percent of its agricultural GDP on agricultural R&D, which was lower than ratios recorded a decade earlier. Costa Rica’s agricultural research capacity has gradually increased over the past decade. The rise in researcher numbers was largely driven by INTA, which recruited a considerable number of young, BSc-qualified researchers after a prolonged period of civil servant recruitment restrictions and the loss of senior scientists to retirement. INTA still lacks a critical mass of PhD-qualified researchers compared to the higher education sector.

Non-PR, IFPRI2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; 5 Strengthening Institutions and Governance; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, The Dominican Republic’s investment in agricultural R&D has been rather stagnant over the past decade (in inflation-adjusted terms). Measured against agricultural GDP, however, there has been a steady drop in investment levels. In 2020, the Dominican Republic spent just 0.18 percent of its agricultural GDP on agricultural R&D, representing among the lowest levels in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Dominican Republic lacks a critical mass of PhD-qualified agricultural researchers. Many scientists with PhD degrees are currently in their sixties and fast approaching the mandatory retirement age. Recruiting and training the next generation of researchers is an urgent priority. However, low public-sector salaries and limited incentives are impeding factors to attracting, motivating, and retaining young talent. Unlike their colleagues at most national agricultural research insti-tutes across Latin America, a high share of IDIAF researchers hold dual appointments as professors or resear-chers at universities or the private sector. This situation discourages universities to create permanent positions for academic staff. It also impedes the fostering of a true agri-cultural R&D ecosystem with multiple independent actors that collaborate and compete on an equal footing.