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Recently, NASA’s InSight mission has shown the value of geophysical landers by greatly increasing our knowledge of the interior of Mars. Correspondingly, geophysical experiments are also of great relevance to lunar exploration: a number of geophysical experiments were proposed in response to the ESA's 2020 call for ideas for a scientific utilization of the large logistics lander (Argonaut). Geophysical payloads are already planned for the Moon, e.g. the Farside Seismic Suite will land a broad-band seismometer in 2025. We here present how the LUNA Habitat training facility under construction in Cologne, Germany, can contribute to the development and testing of lunar geophysical instrumentation.The about 700 square meters of the LUNA Habitat will be covered by 60 cm of EAC-1 regolith simulant on most of the area. On an area of 140 square meters, regolith depth increases to 3 m along a sloping bottom (25° and 40°). This part of LUNA provides an invisible, but explorable underground structure suitable for seismic profiling, ground penetrating radar, geoelectrics, geomagnetics and other techniques, as well as sufficient depth for drilling, subsurface sampling, and deployment of heat flow probes. Sculpting craters and even caves in the regolith, as well as cooling small portions of it, is envisioned. Support by the facility will include personnel with experience in geophysical measurements and data analysis, an end-to-end operational environment including a remote control center with standard communication technology, and, last but not least, training of astronauts in co-operation with robotic units to operate the equipment in lunar surface suits and under gravity offloading.A four-element, Y-shaped array of short period seismometers, based on the layout of the Apollo 17 seismic experiment, will be deployed on the LUNA construction site before erecting the building to record seismic noise sources (car traffic on the DLR campus, the ENVIHAB short arm centrifuge, wind tunnel discharges, air traffic on the nearby CGN international airport etc.). It will also allow for ambient noise analysis aimed at the underground structure, which is expected to consist of Rhine sediments. An active refraction seismic experiment and the deployment of 12 nodal sensors will further aid in site characterization. LUNA will have a concrete floor of up to 60 cm thickness, but with a structured underside for static reasons. The array will be re-deployed on the concrete once the hall is erected to characterize in how far the new high-velocity layer hides the underlying sediments from seismic observation. After completion of LUNA, the effect of the regolith cover on seismic recordings will be characterized by a third array deployment. Documentation of construction details, especially steel enforcing in the concrete, is foreseen. A broad-band seismometer will be installed in the LUNA Habitat permanently, once construction is finished, to support the identification of artificial noise sources and local seismicity in the recordings of customer instruments, and monitor possible changes in the background e.g. due to new buildings or other large-scale research facilities on the DLR campus.

The NASA InSight Lander on Mars includes the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package HP3 to measure the surface heat flow of the planet. The package uses temperature sensors that would have been brought to the target depth of 3–5 m by a small penetrator, nicknamed the mole. The mole requiring friction on its hull to balance remaining recoil from its hammer mechanism did not penetrate to the targeted depth. Instead, by precessing about a point midway along its hull, it carved a 7 cm deep and 5–6 cm wide pit and reached a depth of initially 31 cm. The root cause of the failure – as was determined through an extensive, almost two years long campaign – was a lack of friction in an unexpectedly thick cohesive duricrust. During the campaign – described in detail in this paper – the mole penetrated further aided by friction applied using the scoop at the end of the robotic Instrument Deployment Arm and by direct support by the latter. The mole tip finally reached a depth of about 37 cm, bringing the mole back-end 1–2 cm below the surface. It reversed its downward motion twice during attempts to provide friction through pressure on the regolith instead of directly with the scoop to the mole hull. The penetration record of the mole was used to infer mechanical soil parameters such as the penetration resistance of the duricrust of 0.3–0.7 MPa and a penetration resistance of a deeper layer (> 30 cm depth) of 4.9±0.4 MPa. Using the mole’s thermal sensors, thermal conductivity and diffusivity were measured. Applying cone penetration theory, the resistance of the duricrust was used to estimate a cohesion of the latter of 2–15 kPa depending on the internal friction angle of the duricrust. Pushing the scoop with its blade into the surface and chopping off a piece of duricrust provided another estimate of the cohesion of 5.8 kPa. The hammerings of the mole were recorded by the seismometer SEIS and the signals were used to derive P-wave and S-wave velocities representative of the topmost tens of cm of the regolith. Together with the density provided by a thermal conductivity and diffusivity measurement using the mole’s thermal sensors, the elastic moduli were calculated from the seismic velocities. Using empirical correlations from terrestrial soil studies between the shear modulus and cohesion, the previous cohesion estimates were found to be consistent with the elastic moduli. The combined data were used to derive a model of the regolith that has an about 20 cm thick duricrust underneath a 1 cm thick unconsolidated layer of sand mixed with dust and above another 10 cm of unconsolidated sand. Underneath the latter, a layer more resistant to penetration and possibly containing debris from a small impact crater is inferred. The thermal conductivity increases from 14 mW/m K to 34 mW/m K through the 1 cm sand/dust layer, keeps the latter value in the duricrust and the sand layer underneath and then increases to 64 mW/m K in the sand/gravel layer below., Space Science Reviews, 218 (8), ISSN:1572-9672, ISSN:0038-6308

The NASA InSight Lander on Mars includes the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package HP3 to measure the surface heat flow of the planet. The package uses temperature sensors that would have been brought to the target depth of 3--5 m by a small penetrator, nicknamed the mole. The mole requiring friction on its hull to balance remaining recoil from its hammer mechanism did not penetrate to the targeted depth. Instead, by precessing about a point midway along its hull, it carved a 7 cm deep and 5-6 cm wide pit and reached a depth of initially 31 cm. The root cause of the failure - as was determined through an extensive, almost two years long campaign - was a lack of friction in an unexpectedly thick cohesive duricrust. During the campaign -- described in detail in this paper -- the mole penetrated further aided by friction applied using the scoop at the end of the robotic Instrument Deployment Arm and by direct support by the latter. The mole finally reached a depth of 40 cm, bringing the mole body 1--2 cm below the surface. The penetration record of the mole and its thermal sensors were used to measure thermal and mechanical soil parameters such as the thermal conductivity and the penetration resistance of the duricrust and its cohesion. The hammerings of the mole were recorded by the seismometer SEIS and the signals could be used to derive a P-wave velocity and a S-wave velocity and elastic moduli representative of the topmost tens of cm of the regolith. The combined data were used to derive a model of the regolith that has an about 20 cm thick duricrust underneath a 1 cm thick unconsolidated layer of sand mixed with dust and above another 10 cm of unconsolidated sand. Underneath the latter, a layer more resistant to penetration and possibly consisting of debris from a small impact crater is inferred., arXiv

Hayabusa2 is an asteroid sample return mission operated by the Japanese space agency, JAXA. It was launched in December 2014. In July 2018, the spacecraft has reached the mission target after a 4-year-long cruise. The objective is a C-type primordial asteroid called Ryugu, in search of organic and hydrated minerals that might give essential clues for the solar system formation. The small lander MASCOT (Mobile Asteroid surface SCOuT) carried aboard Hayabusa2 landed on the surface on the 3rd of October 2018 for reliminary in-situ investigations while the probe is aiming to study Ryugu on a global scale and to return samples to Earth. MASCOT was jointly developed by the German Aerospace Centre (DLR) and the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES). It is equipped with a sensor suite consisting of four fully-fledged instruments. DLR was responsible for developing the MASCOT lander and ground segment, and was in charge of planning and conducting lander joint operations from MUSC. CNES supplied the hyperspectral IR spectrometer (MicrOmega, IAS Paris), antennae and power system, provided a support to operations and was in charge of the flight dynamics aspects of the mission. The 17 hours of on-asteroid operations exceeded expectations and the overall landing and operations were a huge success. Indeed, the characteristics of the Ryugu asteroid such as the shape and the gravity were known only after arrival of Hayabusa2 in July 2018 and the operating ccontext was very constrained but did not provide from fulfilling the objectives. This paper is a complement to the overall paper on MASCOT landing and first results. It will focus on several operational tasks such as communication and power subsystems assessments as well as flight dynamics computations needed in real time and for postprocessing.

HP3 – the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package – is an experiment package on-board the upcoming NASA Mars Mission InSight (Interior Exploration Using Seismic Investigation, Geodesy, and Heat Transport).The InSight Mission will investigate the interior structure of Mars using seismoligical and geodetical measurements and quantify the planetary heat budget by measuring the surface planetary heat flow. InSight is scheduled to be launched in May 2018 and to land on Mars at end of November 2018. The main payloads of the InSight lander are a seismometer (SEIS), the HP3 heat flow probe, as well as the Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment (RISE). An ancillary sensor package consisting of atmospheric pressure and temperature sensors (APSS) as well as a magnetometer complement the payload. After landing on Mars the seismometer and HP3 will be deployed onto the Martian surface by the robotic arm of the lander. HP3 is the contribution of DLR (Deutsches zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Germany) to the InSight mission. It is designed to determine the geothermal heat flux by penetrating down into the Martian surface to at least 3m, with the goal of reaching 5m depth. HP3 measures the thermal conductivity as function of depth during the penetration phase, and the thermal profile of the subsurface will be monitored for a full Martian year after reaching the final depth. HP3 is composed of the following subsystems: • A set of thermal sensors to determine thermal conductivity and subsurface temperature (TEM) • A self-penetrating probe (termed the mole) to emplace sensors in the subsurface • Two measurements suites to determine the depth of the thermal sensors (TLM & STATIL) • A radiometer to determine the surface temperature forcing (RAD) • The instrument main (backend) electronics (BEE) The HP3 deployable elements are housed inside a support structure, and electrical connections to the lander and BEE are provided by the HP3 supply tethers. The support structure also guides the mole during its initial penetration into the surface.The mole is a mechanically actuated force hammering device for soil penetration. It pulls a tether with thermal sensors and supply lines behind. By penetrating into the Martian subsurface the thermal sensors (TEM) will be deployed. The mole is equipped in its back part with the subsystem STATIL (STATIC Tilt Measurement Suite) which determines the mole inclination during the penetration. The length of paid-out tether is measured by the TLM subsystem (Tether Length Monitor). The path of the mole and the depth of the thermal sensors will be deterimed from the TLM and STATIL data. The radiometer is mounted

Philae, a comet Lander, part of the ESA Rosetta mission successfully landed on comet 67P/Churyumov- Gerasimenko on November 12th, 2014. After several (unplanned) bounces it performed a First Scientific Sequence (FSS), based on the energy stored in it's on board batteries. All ten instruments of the Philae payload have been operated at least once. Due to the fact that the original landing site was poorly illuminated, Philae went into hibernation on November 15th, but signals from the Lander were received again in June and July 2015. However, various attempts to re-establish reliable and stable communications links, failed. Analysis of the data gained during FSS, and during the contacts in June and July 2015 allows conclusions on the state of Philae. By now, images from the OSIRIS camera aboard the Rosetta Orbiter have allowed the identification of the exact position of Philae and its attitude, relative to the local surface terrain. The paper also gives an overview of the implications of Philae results for future engineering comet models, required particularly for the design of in-situ (landing) or sample return missions. Rosetta is an ESA mission with contributions from its member states and NASA. Rosetta's Philae Lander is provided by a consortium led by DLR, MPS, CNES and ASI with additional contributions from Hungary, UK, Finland, Ireland and Austria.

Philae is a comet Lander, part of Rosetta which is a Cornerstone Mission of the ESA Horizon 2000 programme. Philae successfully landed on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko on November 12th, 2014 and performed a First Scientific Sequence, based on the energy stored in it’s on board batteries. All ten instruments of the payload have been operated at least once. Due to the fact that the final landing site (after several bounces) was poorly illuminated, Philae went into hibernation on November 15th, and the teams hoped for a wake-up at closer heliocentric distances

Rosetta is a Cornerstone Mission of the ESA Horizon 2000 programme. In August 2014 it reached comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko after a 10 year cruise. Both its nucleus and coma have been studied with its orbiter payload of eleven PI instruments, allowing the selection of a landing site for Philae. The landing on the comet nucleus successfully took place on November 12th, 2014. Philae touched the comet surface seven hours after ejection from the orbiter. After several bounces it came to rest and continued to send scientific data to Earth. All ten instruments of its payload have been operated at least once. Due to the fact that the Lander could not be anchored, the originally planned first scientific sequence had to be modified. Philae went into hibernation on November 15th, after its batteries ran out of energy. Re-activation of the Lander was expected for May/June 2015, when CG would be closer to the sun and, indeed, radio contact with the Lander was re-established on June 13th and for (so far) seven more occasions. Rosetta is an ESA mission with contributions from its member states and NASA. Rosetta's Philae lander is provided by a consortium led by DLR, MPS, CNES and ASI with additional contributions from Hungary, UK, Finland, Ireland and Austria.

Rosetta is an ambitious mission launched in March 2004 to study the nucleus as well as the coma of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. It is composed of a space probe and the Philae Lander. The mission is a series of premieres: among others, first probe to escort a comet, first time a landing site is selected with a so short notice, first time a lander has landed on a comet nucleus. The space probe Rosetta reached the vicinity of the comet in spring 2014 when it has started to study Churyumov-Gerasimenko with remote sensing instruments. An intense observation phase followed to be able to select a landing site for the Lander. And in November 2014, at a distance of about 3 AU from the sun, Philae has reached its destination on the surface of the comet 67P. Once stabilized on the comet, the lander has performed its “First Science sequence”. Philae’s aim was to perform detailed and innovative in-situ experiments on the comet’s surface to characterize the nucleus by performing mechanical, chemical and physical investigations on the comet surface. The main contribution to the Rosetta lander by the French space agency (CNES) is the Science Operation and Navigation Centre (SONC) located in Toulouse. Among its tasks is the scheduling of the scientific activities of the 10 lander experiments and then to provide it to the Lander Control Centre (LCC) located in DLR Cologne. Nevertheless, the specific context of the Rosetta mission made this task even more complex if compared to usual spacecraft or landers: indeed the teams in charge of the Philae activity scheduling had to cope with huge constraints in term of energy, data management, asynchronous processes and co-activities or exclusions between instruments. In addition to these huge constraints it is important to note that the comet, its environment and the landing conditions remained unknown until the separation time and that the landing site was selected a short time before it had to take place and when the baseline operational sequence was already designed. This paper will explain the specific context of the Rosetta lander mission and all the constraints that the activity scheduling had to face to fulfil the scientific objectives specified for Philae. A specific tool was developed by CNES and used to design the complete sequence of activities on the comet with respect to all constraints. The baseline scenario designed this way will also be detailed to highlight the difficulties and challenges that the operational team had to face. A specific focus will be given on the landing site selection and the impacts on the scientific operations scheduling. Moreover the actual sequence performed on the comet will also be detailed and analysed to deduce the lessons that could be learned from such an unprecedented endeavour. Indeed as for every mission of exploration the flexibility concept was anticipated but had to face unexpected events.