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European farmland serves as a crucial habitat for many organisms, but the transition from extensive to intensive agriculture has led to a loss of biodiversity that also concerned farmland birds. Intensification has various aspects including landscape homogenisation, whereby large field blocks are created in once heterogeneous landscapes that traditionally consisted of small fields. However, some farmland specialists may indeed benefit from homogeneous landscapes, as they contain a greater share of preferred open habitats. To elucidate this paradox, we focused on a farmland specialist ground-nesting insectivorous bird, the Eurasian Skylark (Alauda arvensis), unravelling its abundance in different landscape structures. The contrasting landscape structures are found in a lowland region along the border between two countries: Slovakia with large fields and Austria with small fields. In this ''natural experiment'', bird censuses, food supply assessments, and vegetation structure analyses were carried out during the Skylark breeding season. Austria showed significantly higher local abundance of Skylark compared to Slovakia, which persisted whole season. The Skylark numbers were positively correlated with an increasing number of crop types. This positive effect of crop number was likely associated with higher food availability at sites with more crops, highlighting the role of diverse crop compositions in fostering a stable food supply for farmland birds. These results indicate that even open-habitat farmland specialists benefit from the landscape heterogeneity provided by small fields composed of different crops. Slovakia-Austria differences highlight the need for context-specific conservation that should also be a concern for agri-environmental measures within the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy.

ABSTRACTIn order to tackle biodiversity decline, various Agri-Environmental Programmes (AEPs) have been established in intensive farming countries. Farmers play a crucial role in restoring biodiversity. Therefore, understanding farmers’ participation in AEPs is of vital importance. Yet, a theory-driven understanding of what AEP strategies need to be implemented in which context to motivate farmers to work on AEPs is lacking. We aimed to close this gap by identifying Programme Theories (PTs) for the design and implementation of successful AEPs. We performed a realist review to identify causal relationships between agri-environmental strategies (S), their outcomes (O), and the contextual factors (C) and motivational mechanisms (M) that explain how, when and why AEP outcomes were achieved. The identified strategy-context-mechanism-outcome (SCMO) configurations and underlying theories were clustered on the C–M relationship to develop PTs. 47 studies were included. Based on the available evidence on more than 60 AEPs in 17 intensive farming countries, 10 interrelated PTs were identified. These 10 PTs form a theory-driven framework that summarizes the insights into how, when and why farmers work on successful AEPs. Each PT provides practical insights into the agri-environmental strategies and necessary contextual factors and mechanisms to guide farmers’ behavioural change toward biodiversity conservation.

Agricultural intensification has simplified landscape composition and configuration, which has led to biodiversity declines. Increasing landscape‐wide crop heterogeneity can promote farmland biodiversity. However, knowledge is still lacking on how the effects of configurational and compositional crop heterogeneity (i.e. field size and crop diversity) are modulated by the amount of semi‐natural habitats in the landscape, especially across large scales.We tested how mean field size and functional crop diversity affect farmland bird diversity and abundance over three consecutive years, and how these effects are modulated by the amount of small woody features (SWF) in the landscape. We related data from a national bird monitoring scheme to field‐level information from a novel, high‐resolution remote sensing‐based crop type map.Smaller field sizes and higher functional crop diversity were not generally associated with a higher diversity or abundance of farmland birds. Associations varied with species' breeding habitat preferences and were modulated by the amount of SWF.In landscapes with a low SWF amount, species diversity and the abundance of species breeding in field edges or shrubs were negatively associated with increasing field size. However, where the amount of SWF was high, larger field size was associated with higher species diversity and abundance of field and shrub breeders. Diversity increased with higher functional crop diversity, as did the abundance of non‐field breeders in landscapes with a medium to high SWF amount. Field size tended to have a stronger effect on bird diversity and abundance than functional crop diversity.Policy implications: National and EU agricultural policies should adopt a landscape perspective by considering the amount of semi‐natural habitats when designing biodiversity‐enhancing measures that target field size and functional crop diversity. In landscapes with low SWF amount, decreasing field sizes may be particularly effective to promote farmland bird diversity and the abundance of non‐field breeders. In landscapes with a medium to high SWF amount, increasing functional crop diversity is likely more effective than reducing field sizes. Field and shrub breeders may be promoted by maintaining landscapes with large fields, only if these offer a high SWF amount, low agronomic yield potential and low productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant diversification contributes to the ecological intensification of agroecosystems through pest biocontrol services provision. However, the existing evidence for the effectiveness of plant diversification in enhancing pest biocontrol services is highly uncertain across features of plant diversity and biodiversity characteristics. We undertook a comparative meta-analysis focusing on three essential crops (wheat, maize, and soybean) to investigate how diversification schemes in-field (intercropping) and Agri-environmental scheme (AES) around the field (flower strip, hedgerow and field margin) affect arthropod abundance. A random effects analysis was used to determine the role of 10 key factors underlying the effectiveness of plant diversification including biodiversity level and habitat, main and companion plant species, intercropping arrangement, the growth stage of the main crops, type of AES planting scheme, AES planting width, distance from AES plantings and geographical latitude. The overall results revealed that intercropping reduced herbivore and boosted predators and parasitoids abundance significantly, while AES successfully increased predators but not herbivores. Maize intercropping with legume and non-legume plants and row intercropping allowed for effective pest management. The abundance of predators increased in wheat fields immediately adjacent to planting around the field (AES), but this effect declined beyond 5 m from the flower strips. Our results suggest that the response of arthropod abundance to plant diversification is a compromise between spatial management scale, ecological characteristics of arthropod and plant diversification features. These results offer promising pathways for optimizing plant diversification schemes that include functional farm biodiversity across spatial and temporal scales and designing multi-functional landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The low survival rate of leverets may significantly contribute to steep population declines and slow recovery of European hares (Lepus europaeus). However, the leveret survival rate in farmlands with different landscape structures is poorly understood, and the existing evidence comes mainly from Western Europe. In this study, we explored the survival of leveret hare dummies along linear semi-natural habitats in homogeneous Central European arable farmland during the main part of the European hare reproduction period (March_April) in 2019 and 2020. The survival rate of hare leverets during the 14-day period was only 22.2%, and all predation events were recorded during the first six days of the experiment. Mammalian predators were responsible for 53.1% of predation events, avian predators for 40.8%, and agricultural operations for 6.1%. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) was the dominant predator in our study area and was the primary cause of leveret dummy mortality (32.7%), but it also had the highest use-intensity and visit frequency of all of the study plots. Predation by avian predators was associated with patches of lower vegetation height and cover (such as plowed fields) and during daylight hours, whereas the opposite was true for mammalian predators. We propose that improving the habitat quality of arable landscapes by increasing the proportion and quality of extensively used non-farmed habitats (e.g., set-asides, wildflower areas, extensive meadows, fallow land, and seminatural habitats on arable land) providing cover and shelter for leverets could be an effective management measure for reducing predation risk on leverets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Semi-natural habitats (SNHs) surrounding agricultural fields contribute significantly to biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. SNHs can be divided into large habitat patches such as contiguous patches of forests, and smaller, interspersed linear habitat types such as grassy field margins. Traditional small-holder agricultural farmlands in China, replete with rich linear habitats, are notably beneficial for biodiversity. However, as these farmlands undergo consolidation to enhance the efficiency of machinery, linear habitats are being removed, a process that could adversely affect biodiversity. Appropriate agri-environmental measures (AEM), such as the restoration of field margins via strategic planting, could serve as an effective countermeasure to maintain biodiversity in consolidated land. This paper discusses how biodiversity monitoring can aid in evaluating the impact of land consolidation and the efficacy of AEM in China, from species richness and species composition perspectives. The paper also discusses the function of linear habitats and how they interact with large habitat patches in promoting biodiversity, while noting that outcomes are likely to vary among taxa. Long-term, multiple-taxa and comprehensive assessments are recommended in further studies, and a collaborative approach that involves multiple stakeholders is essential to ensure a success implication of AEM in China.

Agricultural intensification reduces the taxonomic diversity of bird communities, but its influence on functional diversity has been less studied. Here, we analyze the response of functional diversity of different cereal farmland bird communities across Europe to a gradient of agricultural intensification. We collected bibliographical information on life history traits (i.e. body mass, brain size, age of sexual maturity, clutch size, number of clutches, lifespan) of 30 species of birds recorded during field surveys in eight European countries. The index ''brood value'' was calculated to know each species’ level of reproductive investment per clutch. Intensification gradients at two spatial scales were obtained from field data through PCA, related to management practices at the field scale and the variation in structure and composition of farmland at the landscape scale respectively. We calculated the functional diversity index (FD) and the community-weighted mean (CWM) for each trait and sampling area, and linear mixed models in relation to the two intensification gradients were performed. Results showed that stronger intensification at the field level favors the assembly of shorter-lived communities and bird species with smaller relative brain sizes, also decreasing overall trait diversity. It also restricts the range of strategies for parental investment, reducing the functional diversity of the brood value index. More intensive field management would favor bird communities dominated by generalist and even introduced and/or managed hunting species, while putting at risk those farmland- and grassland-adapted species, typically more associated with the provision of ecosystem services. This highlights the relevance of field management (agrochemicals use, ploughing frequency) for the functional composition of bird communities and the conservation of farmland biodiversity. These findings add to existing knowledge on how species’ pace of life and cognitive capacity interact with drivers of global change, such as agricultural intensification.

Semi-natural habitats (SNHs) surrounding agricultural fields contribute significantly to biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. SNHs can be divided into large habitat patches such as contiguous patches of forests, and smaller, interspersed linear habitat types such as grassy field margins. Traditional small-holder agricultural farmlands in China, replete with rich linear habitats, are notably beneficial for biodiversity. However, as these farmlands undergo consolidation to enhance the efficiency of machinery, linear habitats are being removed, a process that could adversely affect biodiversity. Appropriate agri-environmental measures (AEM), such as the restoration of field margins via strategic planting, could serve as an effective countermeasure to maintain biodiversity in consolidated land. This paper discusses how biodiversity monitoring can aid in evaluating the impact of land consolidation and the efficacy of AEM in China, from species richness and species composition perspectives. The paper also discusses the function of linear habitats and how they interact with large habitat patches in promoting biodiversity, while noting that outcomes are likely to vary among taxa. Long-term, multiple-taxa and comprehensive assessments are recommended in further studies, and a collaborative approach that involves multiple stakeholders is essential to ensure a success implication of AEM in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Agricultural intensification affects life history and functional trait diversity of farmland bird communities. • We calculated the functional diversity index and the community-weighted mean for six life history traits and the brood value index of 30 bird species in eight European farmland areas. • Stronger agricultural intensification at the field level (agrochemicals use, ploughing frequency) favors the assembly of shorter-lived communities and bird species with smaller relative brain sizes. Agricultural intensification reduces the taxonomic diversity of bird communities, but its influence on functional diversity has been less studied. Here, we analyze the response of functional diversity of different cereal farmland bird communities across Europe to a gradient of agricultural intensification. We collected bibliographical information on life history traits (i.e. body mass, brain size, age of sexual maturity, clutch size, number of clutches, lifespan) of 30 species of birds recorded during field surveys in eight European countries. The index "brood value" was calculated to know each species' level of reproductive investment per clutch. Intensification gradients at two spatial scales were obtained from field data through PCA, related to management practices at the field scale and the variation in structure and composition of farmland at the landscape scale respectively. We calculated the functional diversity index (FD) and the community-weighted mean (CWM) for each trait and sampling area, and linear mixed models in relation to the two intensification gradients were performed. Results showed that stronger intensification at the field level favors the assembly of shorter-lived communities and bird species with smaller relative brain sizes, also decreasing overall trait diversity. It also restricts the range of strategies for parental investment, reducing the functional diversity of the brood value index. More intensive field management would favor bird communities dominated by generalist and even introduced and/or managed hunting species, while putting at risk those farmland- and grassland-adapted species, typically more associated with the provision of ecosystem services. This highlights the relevance of field management (agrochemicals use, ploughing frequency) for the functional composition of bird communities and the conservation of farmland biodiversity. These findings add to existing knowledge on how species' pace of life and cognitive capacity interact with drivers of global change, such as agricultural intensification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground‐nesting wild bees provide essential pollination services in agroecosystems, but they are jeopardized by intensive agricultural management. To mitigate such negative impacts, agri‐environment schemes have been implemented. While the success of enhancing floral food resources is relatively well studied, the role of agri‐environmental schemes in providing suitable nesting habitat remains underexplored.We studied the effectiveness of meadow extensification according to the Swiss agri‐environment scheme in promoting nesting of ground‐nesting bees. Using a paired design, we quantified their nests during four rounds (March–June) in pairs of nine randomly selected extensively (i.e. no fertilizer input, postponed first mowing) and nine intensively managed meadows with similar soil properties, slope, exposure and landscape context. Nest numbers and vegetation characteristics were surveyed in areas of 250 m2. Vegetation properties were also assessed in 0.5 × 0.5 m plots around nest locations and randomly selected locations without nests within each meadow to assess their role as drivers of nesting incidence (nest presence/absence) at this plot scale.We found substantially higher nest numbers of ground‐nesting bees in extensively (mean ± SE per sampling round = 46.8 ± 14.2) compared to intensively managed meadows (0.8 ± 0.3; no nests in three of nine intensively managed meadows). Extensively managed meadows harboured nests of several dominant crop pollinator species, including aggregations of, for example, Lasioglossum malachurum contributing to high nest densities in some of them. Number of nests was negatively related to grass cover and vegetation height, which were lower in extensively compared to intensively managed meadows. Plot‐level nesting incidence increased with bare ground and moss cover, and decreased with grass cover.Synthesis and applications. Our study shows that extensively managed meadows are better nesting habitats for ground‐nesting bees than intensively managed meadows, if reduced management intensity is associated with altered vegetation characteristics such as reduced grass cover and vegetation height, and small‐scale availability of bare ground, driving these effects. This highlights that maintaining and promoting extensive management of meadows can promote ground‐nesting wild bees, including dominant crop pollinators, not only by enhancing floral resources but also by improving nesting opportunities in agroecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Ecological Focus Areas (EFAs) were designed as part of the greening strategy of the common agricultural policy to conserve biodiversity in European farmland, prevent soil erosion and improve soil quality. Farmers receive economic support if they dedicate at least 5% of their arable farmland to any type of EFA, which can be selected from a list of options drawn up at the European Union level. However, EFAs have been criticized for failing to achieve their environmental goals and being ineffective in conserving farmland biodiversity, mainly because they are not spatially targeted and because they promote economic rather than ecological considerations in farm management decisions. Objectives: We used a spatially explicit approach to assess the influence of farm and field context as well as field terrain and soil conditions on the likelihood of whether or not a particular EFA type was implemented in a field. Methods: We used a multinomial model approach using field-level land use and management data from 879 farms that complied with the EFA policy in 2019 in the Mulde River Basin in Saxony, Germany. Geospatial environmental information was used to assess which predictor variables (related to farm context, field context or field terrain and soil conditions) increased the probability of a field being assigned to a particular EFA. We tested the hypothesis that productive EFAs are more often implemented on fields that are more suitable for agricultural production and that EFA options that are considered more valuable for biodiversity (e.g. non-productive EFAs) are allocated on fields that are less suitable for agricultural production. Results: We found that farms embedded in landscapes with a low proportion of small woody features or nature conservation areas mainly fulfilled the EFA policy with productive EFAs (e.g. nitrogen fixing crops). Conversely, farms with a higher proportion of small woody features or nature conservation areas were more likely to adopt non-productive EFAs. As predicted, large and compact fields with higher soil fertility and lower erosion risk were assigned to productive EFAs. Non-productive EFAs were placed on small fields in naturally disadvantaged areas. EFA options considered particularly beneficial for biodiversity, such as fallow land, were allocated far away from other semi-natural or nature protection areas. Conclusions: Our results highlight that the lack of spatial targeting of EFAs may result in EFA options being assigned to areas where their relative contribution to conservation goals is lower (e.g. farms with higher shares of protected areas) and absent in areas where they are most needed (e.g. high intensity farms). To ensure that greening policies actually promote biodiversity in European agriculture, incentives are needed to encourage greater uptake of ecologically effective measures on intensively used farms. These should be coupled with additional measures to conserve threatened species with specific habitat requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floral plantings are promoted to foster ecological intensification of agriculture through provisioning of ecosystem services. However, a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of different floral plantings, their characteristics and consequences for crop yield is lacking. Here we quantified the impacts of flower strips and hedgerows on pest control (18 studies) and pollination services (17 studies) in adjacent crops in North America, Europe and New Zealand. Flower strips, but not hedgerows, enhanced pest control services in adjacent fields by 16% on average. However, effects on crop pollination and yield were more variable. Our synthesis identifies several important drivers of variability in effectiveness of plantings: pollination services declined exponentially with distance from plantings, and perennial and older flower strips with higher flowering plant diversity enhanced pollination more effectively. These findings provide promising pathways to optimise floral plantings to more effectively contribute to ecosystem service delivery and ecological intensification of agriculture in the future.

Fallow agricultural land provides habitat for threatened and declining farmland biodiversity. Policy change under the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been driving the area of fallows over the past decades. It is still unclear, whether positive relationships between farmland biodiversity and fallow area are general in time and space, and what landscape factors moderate them at large scales.We analysed associations between fallow area and species richness and abundance of 24 farmland birds in 3 years covering three CAP funding periods, by linking agricultural statistics at the district level to plot‐level bird data from a national‐scale monitoring scheme. We tested whether these relationships are moderated by species' habitat preferences and landscape configurational complexity, measured as the edge density of woody features.Species richness was positively associated with fallow area in all three funding periods. We found a hump‐shaped response along a gradient of increasing landscape configurational complexity. The associations between fallow area and species richness peaked at intermediate values of edge density.The associations between species abundance and fallow area varied among species, but there was strong support for positive and consistent associations in 15 (63%) of the studied species. There was little support for a moderating effect of landscape configurational complexity on the associations of fallow area and bird abundance.Policy implications. To support farmland biodiversity, we suggest promoting fallow land across all agricultural landscapes and anchoring respective ambitious targets in the CAP strategic plans. An increase of fallow land beyond minimum requirements through voluntary measures, such as eco‐schemes and agri‐environment schemes, should particularly target landscapes with intermediate configurational complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agri‐environment schemes (AES) are the primary policy mechanism for addressing farmland biodiversity declines across Europe. Despite previous studies on the impacts of AES on biodiversity, there is little empirical evidence on the scale of provision required to reverse declines.Across three regions of lowland England with contrasting farm systems (arable, pastoral, mixed), we estimated avian population growth rates (PGRs) on farmland with high AES provision ('higher‐tier': average bird‐friendly option cover = 7.4%), low AES provision ('lower‐tier': 2.3%) and no bird‐friendly AES ('no AES'). Ten‐year PGRs were derived for 24 species and three multi‐species groups comprising farmland‐associated species ('farmland birds'), species of conservation concern ('priority birds') and species restricted to farmland ('specialist birds'). We used PGRs to simulate the proportion of the regional farmland landscape that would have to be assigned to higher‐ and lower‐tier agreements to stabilise or increase populations.In the arable and pastoral regions, 13/23 and 13/22 species, respectively, had more positive PGRs under higher‐tier AES than on no AES farmland (none had more negative PGRs), compared to 4/22 (positive) and 1/22 (negative) in the mixed region. Only two to four species per region exhibited more positive PGRs under lower‐tier AES compared to no AES farmland.Multi‐species PGRs in the arable and pastoral regions increased from no AES (strong decline), to lower‐tier (decline or stability) to higher‐tier (moderate or strong increase). There was no overall AES effect in the mixed region.To increase regional farmland bird populations by 10% over 10 years, 47% and 26% of the farmed landscape would need to be devoted to higher‐tier agreements in arable and pastoral landscapes respectively. This falls to 34% and 17% when higher‐tier is targeted at localities supporting higher abundances of target species, and to 29% and 10% when 30% of the farmed landscape is also devoted to lower‐tier. Priority and specialist birds require higher provision levels.Policy implications. Where farmland bird recovery is an AES objective, farms should prioritise higher‐tier agreement delivery over lower‐tier. Farmland bird responses to AES provision are likely to vary regionally, but careful targeting will reduce the amount needed in the landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in agricultural land use and management are largely responsible for the current global biodiversity crisis. Addressing this crisis necessitates a change in management practices that are considered to limit biodiversity. Comparing intensive land-use forms with their extensive and traditional counterparts can help define good practice example for integrated conservation. We compare remnants of traditional meadow orchards with intensively managed apple orchards in a mountain region by investigating the multi-taxonomic diversity of seven groups (including vascular plants, wild bees, diurnal butterflies, orthopterans, spiders, birds, and bats) and macro-invertebrates inhabiting four habitat strata (soil, ground-dwelling, herb, and tree layer). Each group and stratum was sampled with a target sampling method. We found a consistent trend of higher abundance, diversity, and presence of threatened species in meadow orchards compared to apple orchards. Specifically, wild bees, butterflies, orthopterans, and birds showed significantly lower diversity in apple orchards across different diversity indices. Furthermore, multi-taxonomic indices of all taxa and most habitat strata followed the same trend, supporting the conclusion that these findings are applicable to the entire orchard ecosystem. We conclude that traditional agroforestry systems, such as meadow orchards, could represent a well-suited good-practice example for integrated biodiversity conservation in the agricultural landscape. Finally, we emphasize the importance of maintaining traditional management practices through effective conservation measures such as subsidies as part of agri-environmental schemes. • Meadow orchards support higher multi-taxonomic diversity than apple orchards. • Wild bees, butterflies, orthopterans, and birds have lower diversity in apple orchards. • Management impact is concordant over multiple taxa and four habitat strata. • Meadow orchards are proposed as examples of integrated biodiversity conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildflower areas are a popular agri-environment scheme to counteract agro-biodiversity loss. Yet, their benefits are controversially discussed. Since inconsistent benefits may be owed to landscape context and temporal dynamics, we applied a multi-year study to unravel effects of permanent and transient habitats on ground-dwelling arthropods in wildflower areas and cereal fields.Across three consecutive years, we studied activity density, species richness and community composition of rove beetles, carabid beetles and spiders in ten pairs of wildflower areas and cereal fields along independent gradients of proportions of permanent semi-natural habitats or transient wildflower areas.Arthropod responses to the proportions of permanent semi-natural habitats often followed a hump-shaped pattern, whereas transient wildflower areas seemed to drive linear responses. An interactive effect on rove beetle richness in wildflower areas implies that benefits were highest either at intermediate proportions of permanent semi-natural habitats or at lower proportions, but with additional availability of transient wildflower areas or in landscapes with low proportions of permanent semi-natural habitats, but high proportions of wildflower areas. However, ground-dwelling arthropod activity density or species richness did not systematically increase over the three study years.Our results suggest that both permanent and transient habitats differ in how they affect biodiversity, possibly due to different temporal continuity and resource diversity. Benefits of permanent semi-natural habitats seemed highest at an equilibrium between an increasing resource-related species pool and an increasing diversity dilution, whereas benefits of transient wildflower areas seemed to increase with resource complementarity and connectivity at the landscape scale. Nevertheless, both habitats seem to complement each other and considered in concert, seem to be most effective in promoting benefits of wildflower areas to ground-dwelling arthropods at intermediate landscape complexity. The substantial variation in diversity patterns among years with weather extremes, suggests that optimizing benefits of wildflower areas requires further multi-year studies.

Extensively managed grasslands are globally recognized for their high biodiversity value. Over the past century, a continuous loss and degradation of grassland habitats has been observed across Europe that is mainly attributable to agricultural intensification and land abandonment. Particularly insects have suffered from the loss of grassland habitats due to land-use change and the decrease in habitat quality, either due to an increase in livestock density, higher mowing frequency, and an increase in nitrogen fertilization, or by abandonment. However, only a few studies have used nationwide datasets to analyse the effects of land cover and land-use intensity on insects. It further remains largely unexplored how these effects are modulated by species traits, i.e. habitat specialisation and mobility. Using nationwide butterfly data originating from the German Butterfly Monitoring Scheme, we investigated the effect of three indicators related to land cover and agricultural land-use intensity on species richness as well as trait composition of butterfly communities. Based on agricultural census data at the municipality scale, we calculated the share of permanent grasslands (measure of habitat availability), the total livestock density (proxy for organic fertilization) and the livestock density of domestic herbivores (proxy for management intensity in grasslands) within a 2 km buffer surrounding each butterfly transect. To analyse the relationships between butterflies and indicators of land cover and land-use intensity, we applied generalised linear mixed effect models. We found a negative relationship between butterfly species richness and the livestock density of domestic herbivores. Further, the ratio of butterfly generalist to specialist species shifted towards generalists and the size of butterflies increased with higher herbivore livestock density, indicating a shift in communities towards mobile habitat generalists. Our results are in accordance with previous studies carried out across smaller geographic extents, highlighting the importance of low herbivore livestock densities to halt the loss of pollinating insects and safeguard biodiversity and associated ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes. We here demonstrate that indicators based on livestock distribution data at the municipality scale can provide insights into processes and spatial diversity patterns of butterflies at the national level. Further, we highlight potentials and limitations of using agricultural census data to quantify and assess effects of land cover and land-use intensity on butterflies, and make recommendations for further research needs.

Managing agricultural landscapes integrate production, biodiversity conservation and the flow of ecosystem services (ES) is of paramount importance to simultaneously meet production goals and environmental challenges. However, the response of farmland biodiversity and multiple ES to land‐use change at multiple spatial scales remains poorly understood.We explored the effects of land‐use at local (grassland vs. oilseed rape fields) and landscape scale (cover of permanent grasslands) on the provision of biodiversity (plants, arthropods, birds), five ES (pollination, pest control, soil fertility, carbon storage and water regulation) and overall ES‐multifunctionality.ES‐multifunctionality was higher in grasslands than in crop fields, by 25.2% above‐ground and by 106.1% below‐ground. Multiple threshold analyses highlighted a particularly poor level of performance for below‐ground functions in crop fields. This habitat type was however capable of providing numerous above‐ground functions simultaneously, although at low levels of performance when compared to the maximum values recorded in the study. Grasslands supported higher biodiversity and provision of pollination, soil fertility, carbon storage and water regulation.Landscape composition influenced the provision of multiple ES: a 10% increase in grassland cover in the landscape enhanced above‐ground ES‐multifunctionality by 11.0% in both habitats. In particular, grasslands cover in the landscape supported the provision of arthropod diversity, pollination and pest control provided by carabids.Synthesis and applications. The results of this field study show the key importance of preserving semi‐natural grasslands in agricultural landscapes for the conservation of farmland biodiversity, for the protection of soils and the delivery of multiple ES critical for crop production. Maximization of multifunctionality necessitates the integration at the landscape scale (0.5–2 km) of semi‐natural patches within the intensively farmed agricultural matrix. This would require not only the protection of existing grasslands, but also their restoration in simplified landscapes. The promotion of mixed farming (i.e., both crop and livestock production) might increase semi‐natural grassland cover at the landscape scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural intensification has led to a dramatic impoverishment of biodiversity. Moths are not an exception: rapid declines of common and widespread species have been reported and it is still not clear which conservation measures should be applied to restore their populations.We investigated how much of the variation in moth assemblages inhabiting extensively managed meadows in a region of high‐intensity agriculture is explained by surrounding woody landscape features, meadow management and vegetation composition, and which specific variables are the most influential.Results show that the percentage of forest and the length of hedgerows within a 250 m radius were especially important for forest macromoths, explaining 42% of variation in abundance and 23% of species richness, whereas meadow management played a relatively marginal role. The abundance of grassland macromoths was also positively influenced by the length of hedgerows in the landscape (combined with elevation it explained 10% of the variance), while it responded negatively to uncut refuge and to delayed mowing (7%). Regarding grassland macromoth species richness, the annual harvesting frequency was the main predictor (4%). In contrast, micromoth abundance was more influenced by meadow management, notably the date of the first cut (4%) and vegetation composition (8%, though not conclusive due to a single outlier), whereas landscape features explained nothing.Altogether, these results demonstrate the importance of both woody features within farmed landscapes and biodiversity‐friendly meadow management for the maintenance of integral moth communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has not halted farmland biodiversity loss. The CAP post‐2023 has a new "Green Architecture," including the new "Eco‐scheme" instrument. How can this new Green Architecture help tackle the biodiversity crisis? Through 13 workshops and an online survey, over 300 experts from 23 European Member States addressed this question. From experts' contributions, key principles for success include preserving and restoring (semi)natural elements and extensive grasslands; improving spatial planning and landscape‐scale implementation, including through collective actions; implementing result‐based approaches; and improved knowledge exchange. To maximize the effectiveness of Eco‐scheme for biodiversity, experts highlighted the need to prioritize evidence‐based actions, allocate a sufficient budget for biodiversity, and incentivize management improvements through higher payment levels. Additionally, stronger coherence is needed among CAP instruments. For effective CAP implementation, the European Commission and the Member States should expand investments in biodiversity monitoring, knowledge transfer, and capacity‐building within relevant institutions. The remaining risks in the CAP's ability to reverse the loss of farmland biodiversity still require better design, closer monitoring, greater transparency, and better engagement with farmers. Additionally, greater involvement of scientists is needed to guide the CAP toward restoring farmland biodiversity while accounting for synergies and trade‐offs with other objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has not halted farmland biodiversity loss. The CAP post‐2023 has a new ‘‘Green Architecture,’’ including the new ‘‘Eco‐scheme’’ instrument. How can this new Green Architecture help tackle the biodiversity crisis? Through 13 workshops and an online survey, over 300 experts from 23 European Member States addressed this question. From experts’ contributions, key principles for success include preserving and restoring (semi)natural elements and extensive grasslands; improving spatial planning and landscape‐scale implementation, including through collective actions; implementing result‐based approaches; and improved knowledge exchange. To maximize the effectiveness of Eco‐scheme for biodiversity, experts highlighted the need to prioritize evidence‐based actions, allocate a sufficient budget for biodiversity, and incentivize management improvements through higher payment levels. Additionally, stronger coherence is needed among CAP instruments. For effective CAP implementation, the European Commission and the Member States should expand investments in biodiversity monitoring, knowledge transfer, and capacity‐building within relevant institutions. The remaining risks in the CAP's ability to reverse the loss of farmland biodiversity still require better design, closer monitoring, greater transparency, and better engagement with farmers. Additionally, greater involvement of scientists is needed to guide the CAP toward restoring farmland biodiversity while accounting for synergies and trade‐offs with other objectives.

Biological control of weeds is a key ecological function of agriculture production. Our aim was to determine how border quality, distance to border, crop type and phenology, affect the consumption of herbicide-resistant weed seeds by rodents in the agroecosystems of central Argentina. We used seeds of four commonly problematic weeds and two crops in a consumption experiment with three exclusion treatments. We studied seed consumption at three distances of the border in 20 crop plots (10 soybean and 10 maize) associated with borders of different quality in spring and summer. We measured nine environmental variables and determined the abundance of rodents for each site. Seed consumption varied greatly among seed species, Amaranthus hybridus and Zea mays had the highest mean consumption rate, followed by Sorghum halepense and Digitaria sp. , Ipomoea purpurea and Glycine max were rarely consumed. Our model predictions show seed consumption rates above 20 % for Digitaria sp, and 40 % for A. hybridus with the increase of border vegetation volume. On the other hand, Z. mays consumption reaches more than 30 % in summer. This high weed seed consumption would modify the population and community dynamic of the weeds by impeding seed entrance to the seed bank. Our results highlight that rodents could perform biological control of herbicide-resistant weeds. The positive effect that habitats with high vegetation cover have on rodent species suggests that appropriate management strategies like maintaining high-quality field borders and establishing natural and semi-natural patches can enhance weed biological control in industrialised agroecosystems. • Seed consumption by rodents increased with vegetation volume and plant richness. • Seed consumption varied with seed identity. • Some species reached over 40 % consumption in sites with high-quality borders. • Rodents could potentially improve biological weed control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Biodiversity has undergone a major decline throughout recent decades, particularly in farmland. Agricultural practices are recognized to be an important pressure on farmland biodiversity, and pesticides are suspected to be one of the main causes of this decline in biodiversity. As part of the national plan for reduction of pesticides use (Ecophyto), the French ministry of agriculture launched the 500 ENI (nonintended effects) monitoring program in 2012 in order to assess the unintended effects of agricultural practices, including pesticide use, on biodiversity represented by several taxonomic groups of interest for farmers. This long‐term program monitors the biodiversity of nontargeted species (earthworms, plants, coleoptera, and birds), together with a wide range of annual data on agricultural practices (crop rotation, soil tillage, weed control, fertilizers, chemical treatments, etc.). Other parameters (e.g., landscape and climatic characteristics) are also integrated as covariates during the analyses. This monitoring program is expected to improve our understanding of the relative contribution of the different drivers of population and community trends. Here, we present the experience of setting up the 500 ENI network for this ambitious and highly complex monitoring program, as well as the type of data it collects. The issue of data quality control and some first results are discussed. With the aim of being useful to readers who would like to set up similar monitoring schemes, we also address some questions that have arisen following the first five years of the implementation phase of the program.

Hedgerows are a semi-natural habitat that supports farmland biodiversity by providing food, shelter, and habitat connectivity. Hedgerow planting goals have been set across many countries in Europe and agri-environment schemes (AES) play a key role in reaching these targets. Passive acoustic monitoring using automated vocalisation identification (automated PAM), offers a valuable opportunity to assess biodiversity changes following AES implementation using simple, community-level metrics, such as vocal activity of birds and bats. To evaluate whether vocal activity could be used to indicate the effectiveness of AES following hedgerow planting in future result-based or hybrid schemes, we surveyed twenty-four hedgerows in England classified into a chrono-sequence of three age categories (New, Young, Old). We recorded 4466 h over the course of 30 days and measured bird and bat vocal activity using BirdNET for birds and Kaleidoscope for bats. Vocal activity of all birds, farmland birds, and bats were modelled with age and predictors of hedgerow, habitat, and weather conditions to assess changes occurring from hedgerow planting to maturity. We show an increase of vocal activity in Young and Old hedgerows compared to New ones and highlight elements of the surrounding landscape that should be considered when evaluating AES implementation on bird and bat communities. We found high BirdNET precision in community-level vocal activity and low precision of species-level observations, and we argue that vocal activity may be used in novel AES to link a result-based payment component to automated PAM results, incentivising biodiversity effective hedgerow planting and management by farmers and landowners. • Automated passive acoustic monitoring of vocal activity in hedges of different ages • Higher bird and bat vocal activity in older hedges compared to newly planted ones • Higher vocal activity in hedges more connected, more diverse, and with trees • Low precision in species ID but high precision in vocalisations ID by BirdNET • Automated ID useful to assess agri-environment schemes results at community level [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pesticide use has been associated with risks for human health and an overall decline in biodiversity. Although herbicides are the most commonly used pesticides worldwide, they have received less attention in this debate. We investigated the extent to which long-term trends in herbicide use in Austria influence potential toxic exposures to non-target organisms and potential risks to humans. We analyzed official sales data of 101 herbicide active ingredients (AIs) approved in Austria between 2010 and 2019 regarding their ecotoxicological properties based on lethal doses (LD50 and LC50) weighed by their persistence in the environment (DT50) for honeybees (Apis mellifera), earthworms (Eisenia fetida), and birds (Serinus serinus). Human health risks were qualitatively assessed based on official hazard statements for the AIs used. Results: In Austria, herbicide amounts sold decreased significantly by 24% from 1480 to 1123 tonnes between 2010 and 2019. This also led to a considerable decrease in the amounts of AIs classified by H-statements of the EU Pesticides Database: − 71% acute inhalation toxicity, − 58% reproductive toxicity,− 47% specific target organ toxicity. Yet, 36% of herbicides used were still classified as highly hazardous pesticides according to the Pesticide Action Network. Surprisingly, over the same period, toxic loads to honeybees increased by 487% (oral exposure), while lethal toxic loads to earthworms increased by 498%, and to birds by 580%. This can be attributed to a shift toward the use of more acutely toxic and especially more persistent AIs. The most problematic AI for honeybees, earthworms, birds and humans was the highly persistent diquat. The further ranking of the most toxic herbicides varied considerably depending on the organism. It is important to note that this toxic load assessment, like official environmental risk assessments, evaluates the potential risk but not the actual fatalities or real-world exposure. Conclusions: Our results show a trade-off between herbicide amounts and toxicological hazards to humans and other non-target organisms. These interdependencies need to be considered when implementing pesticide reduction targets to protect public health and biodiversity, such as the EU´s "farm-to-fork" strategy, which aims to reduce the amounts and risks of synthetic pesticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accelerating loss of farmland biodiversity due to agricultural intensification can impair strong temporal dynamics in agroecosystems. Protecting farmland biodiversity against severe agro-environmental changes demands precise understanding of factors involved in shaping multifunctional communities. Considering multiple agro-environmental factors at local and landscape scales, we examined response-effect trait frameworks in predicting community assemblage of spiders, an important ecosystem service provider of natural pest control. Multivariate ordination combined with fourthcorner approaches were applied to highlight the combination of associations among agro-environmental factors, responseeffect trait frameworks and species datasets, and to test individual trait framework-environment relationships. We found that local and landscape gradients acted differently in driving assemblage of spider species based on their functional trait frameworks. A high proportion of cauliflower crops, edge density and neighboring forest fragments were associated with web-building and ballooning species, reflecting complexity of plant structure, higher habitat stability, and availability of complementary resources. In contrast, Chinese cabbage crops and less neighboring forest fragments supported functionally impoverished communities mainly dominated by non-web builders with less-common ballooning characteristics. Farming systems (organic vs conventional) did not show significant effects on functional diversity measures, but only conventional management strongly enhanced assemblages of ambushers, orb-web builders and foliage-runners. These results suggest that in a highly dynamic agroecosystem, presence of structurally complex crop species, preservation and introduction of neighboring forest fragments and increasing edge densities can play a vital role in conserving the generalist predators with diverse hunting strategies, which in turn can provide better level of pest suppression and reduce crop damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flower strips are a fundamental part of agri‐environment schemes (AESs) introduced by the European Union to counteract the loss of biodiversity and related ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes. Although vegetation composition of the strips is essential for most fauna groups, comprehensive studies analysing vegetation development and influencing factors are rare.From 2017 to 2019, we investigated the vegetation composition of 40 perennial wildflower strips (WFSs) implemented in 2015 or 2016, and 20 cereal fields without WFS across Saxony‐Anhalt, Germany. We analysed environmental factors on plot (cover of grasses, shading, soil fertility) and four landscape‐scale levels (habitat diversity, proportion of WFS and open habitats). The provision of nectar and pollen resources was estimated by the newly developed Pollinator Feeding Index (PFI). All strips had been implemented by farmers as AES with species‐rich seed mixtures comprising 30 native forbs.In all study years, forb species richness, cover and related nectar and pollen supply were much higher on WFSs than on controls, confirming the effectiveness of this AES. Although sown native forbs contributed the most to the high PFI values, spontaneously established forbs expanded the total range of species considerably, especially in winter and spring. While sown forb communities remained similar over time, spontaneous forbs showed a higher species turnover. Altogether, shading and grass cover had the greatest negative effect on the performance of the sown forbs. Landscape variables had only minor effects and were inconsistent in their importance across scale levels and years.Synthesis and applications. Successfully established perennial wildflower strips (WFSs) sown with species‐rich native seed mixtures provided a forb‐rich and diverse vegetation throughout the AES funding period of 5 years. By supplying feeding resources for pollinators under various landscape situations, WFSs have significant potential to promote farmland biodiversity and related ecosystem services. We recommend the mandatory use of species‐rich wildflower mixtures for perennial flower strips and to avoid their creation in heavily shaded field edges. Advisory services for farmers are necessary to prevent failures in WFS implementation and management and to improve their ecological effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildflower areas are a popular agri-environment scheme to counteract agro-biodiversity loss. Yet, their benefits are controversially discussed. Since inconsistent benefits may be owed to landscape context and temporal dynamics, we applied a multi-year study to unravel effects of permanent and transient habitats on ground-dwelling arthropods in wildflower areas and cereal fields. Across three consecutive years, we studied activity density, species richness and community composition of rove beetles, carabid beetles and spiders in ten pairs of wildflower areas and cereal fields along independent gradients of proportions of permanent semi-natural habitats or transient wildflower areas. Arthropod responses to the proportions of permanent semi-natural habitats often followed a hump-shaped pattern, whereas transient wildflower areas seemed to drive linear responses. An interactive effect on rove beetle richness in wildflower areas implies that benefits were highest either at intermediate proportions of permanent semi-natural habitats or at lower proportions, but with additional availability of transient wildflower areas or in landscapes with low proportions of permanent semi-natural habitats, but high proportions of wildflower areas. However, ground-dwelling arthropod activity density or species richness did not systematically increase over the three study years. Our results suggest that both permanent and transient habitats differ in how they affect biodiversity, possibly due to different temporal continuity and resource diversity. Benefits of permanent semi-natural habitats seemed highest at an equilibrium between an increasing resource-related species pool and an increasing diversity dilution, whereas benefits of transient wildflower areas seemed to increase with resource complementarity and connectivity at the landscape scale. Nevertheless, both habitats seem to complement each other and considered in concert, seem to be most effective in promoting benefits of wildflower areas to ground-dwelling arthropods at intermediate landscape complexity. The substantial variation in diversity patterns among years with weather extremes, suggests that optimizing benefits of wildflower areas requires further multi-year studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Managing farmland to benefit biodiversity is becoming increasingly necessary to combat biodiversity declines and maintain ecosystem services. Results-based agri-environmental schemes are a tool used to achieve this by paying farmers based on environmental results delivered. These schemes often utilise plant indicator species to assess results at field scale; however, it is unknown if focusing on enhancing a subset of one biodiversity group within results-based schemes impacts wider biodiversity, and whether local-scale implementation of results-based schemes or/and the wider landscape are more important drivers of biodiversity patterns. 2. Insect pollinators provide important pollination services for many crop and wild plants, and as mobile organisms often experience landscape at large spatial scales. We tested whether insect pollinators are affected at local scale by a results-based scheme scored based on plant indicators, or if landscape management is more important, and whether there were different responses between taxon-specific groups. Bumblebees, solitary bees, hoverflies and butterflies were sampled using transects and pan traps in 23 fields with varying scores assigned by the scheme, situated in high-intensity (≥65% improved grassland) or low-intensity (≥65% seminatural grassland) landscapes. 3. Results indicate taxon-specific responses to local and landscape management in semi-natural grasslands. Bumblebees responded positively to local-scale management in fields with higher floral diversity, whereas hoverflies and butterflies responded positively to low-intensity landscape management. 4. Synthesis and applications. Using plant species as indicators for biodiversity in agri-environment schemes can have indirect benefits for non-target taxa like bumblebees, but broader indicators should be developed to incorporate other pollinator groups. Pollinator groups respond differently to local and landscape management in semi-natural grasslands. Agri-environmental management should consider a range of different management measures and landscape scale approaches where possible, to maximise benefits for a range of pollinator taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation of biodiversity alongside agriculture is now a global priority. Tree-nesting waterbirds have a tenuous relationship with farmlands because their survival requires farmers to retain trees and wetlands amid croplands. Research on such birds is rare on tropical and sub-tropical agricultural landscapes where high human densities and intensive farming ostensibly deteriorate breeding conditions. We explored breeding ecology and nest site selection by the single-nesting Woolly-necked Stork (Ciconia episcopus) in Haryana, north India using 298 nests from 166 locations discovered between 2016 and 2020. We determined the relative strengths of association of nest locations with natural features (trees, wetlands), human presence (habitation) and artificial water sources (irrigation canals) to understand cues used by breeding storks to situate nests. Woolly-necked Stork brood size from 42 successful nests was relatively high (3.1 ± 0.9 SD), with nests close to human habitation and wetlands having smaller broods. Storks showed high nest site fidelity (44.5% of sites used > 1 year), rarely nested on man-made structures (electricity pylons; 8.4%), and distributed nests in a clumped pattern. Woolly-necked Storks situated nests ambivalent to natural features but associated strongly with man-made features (positively with irrigation canals; negatively with human habitation). Contrary to expectations, most nests were not on the tallest trees but on the medium sized, native Dalbergia sissoo though storks situated nests on two tall trees (native Ficus religiosa and exotic Eucalyptus sp.) far more than the trees’ availability. All three tree species were favoured either for traditional agroforestry or local religious beliefs. Traditional agriculture in Haryana supported a substantial breeding population of Woolly-necked Storks facilitated by agriculture-related components rather than existing natural features. This novel scenario contradicts conventional narratives that suggest multi-season small holder tropical and sub-tropical agriculture degrades breeding conditions for waterbirds. Our findings in Haryana reiterate the need to assemble a diverse conservation toolkit of different locally relevant mechanisms supporting biodiversity amid cultivation.

In order to mitigate the effects of climate change, the UK government has set a target of achieving net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050. Agricultural GHG emissions in 2017 were 45.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e; 10% of UK total GHG emissions). Farmland hedgerows are a carbon sink, storing carbon in the vegetation and soils beneath them, and thus increasing hedgerow length by 40% has been proposed in the UK to help meet net zero targets. However, the full impact of this expansion on farm biodiversity is yet to be evaluated in a net zero context. This paper critically synthesises the literature on the biodiversity implications of hedgerow planting and management on arable farms in the UK as a rapid review with policy recommendations. Eight peer-reviewed articles were reviewed, with the overall scientific evidence suggesting a positive influence of hedgerow management on farmland biodiversity, particularly coppicing and hedgelaying, although other boundary features, e.g. field margins and green lanes, may be additive to net zero hedgerow policy as they often supported higher abundances and richness of species. Only one paper found hedgerow age effects on biodiversity, with no significant effects found. Key policy implications are that further research is required, particularly on the effect of hedgerow age on biodiversity, as well as mammalian and avian responses to hedgerow planting and management, in order to fully evaluate hedgerow expansion impacts on biodiversity.

Increased farming intensity led to massive declines across multiple farmland taxa. In Europe, measures introduced to counteract these losses include those considered agronomically productive, such as organic farming, as well as those that support no direct production of crops, such as non‐crop flowering fields in conventional farming systems.We studied biodiversity effects of non‐productive flowering fields managed under conventional farming compared to both an organically managed cereal mono‐crop (organic winter spelt fields) and a flowering mixed‐crop (organic lentil mixed‐crop fields) as well as conventionally managed winter wheat fields, which served as control crop. These four crop‐use types were studied on six sites over 3 years (17 sites in total) to assess their impact on the activity density (cover for plants), species richness and community composition of wild plants, carabids, spiders, butterflies and wild bees.Species richness of wild plants was highest under organic farming and at field edges when compared to the interior. In the case of carabids and spiders, species richness was highest at the field edges, but there was no difference between the four crop‐use types. In contrast, activity density and species richness of butterflies and wild bees responded only to flowering crop‐use types, showing no edge effects. Arable land cover in 500 m buffer area also affected community composition of all taxa, with the exception of spiders, but had only minor effects on activity densities and species richness.Synthesis and applications. Our findings underline that there is no single best measure to promote biodiversity on arable land. Instead a mosaic of non‐productive and productive measures such as conventional flowering fields, organic crops and field edge habitats might be more appropriate to support the regional species pool in arable‐dominated landscapes. To support a range of complementary biodiversity‐promoting farming practices, agricultural policy should foster the coordination and collaboration between multiple farmers within the same region by covering additional costs for coordination and prioritizing collaborative schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity has undergone a major decline throughout recent decades, particularly in farmland. Agricultural practices are recognized to be an important pressure on farmland biodiversity, and pesticides are suspected to be one of the main causes of this decline in biodiversity. As part of the national plan for reduction of pesticides use (Ecophyto), the French ministry of agriculture launched the 500 ENI (nonintended effects) monitoring program in 2012 in order to assess the unintended effects of agricultural practices, including pesticide use, on biodiversity represented by several taxonomic groups of interest for farmers. This long‐term program monitors the biodiversity of nontargeted species (earthworms, plants, coleoptera, and birds), together with a wide range of annual data on agricultural practices (crop rotation, soil tillage, weed control, fertilizers, chemical treatments, etc.). Other parameters (e.g., landscape and climatic characteristics) are also integrated as covariates during the analyses. This monitoring program is expected to improve our understanding of the relative contribution of the different drivers of population and community trends. Here, we present the experience of setting up the 500 ENI network for this ambitious and highly complex monitoring program, as well as the type of data it collects. The issue of data quality control and some first results are discussed. With the aim of being useful to readers who would like to set up similar monitoring schemes, we also address some questions that have arisen following the first five years of the implementation phase of the program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agri-environmental measures (AEM) are an agricultural policy instrument for enhancing of agricultural practices and activities that go beyond the basic environmental standards. Formulation of agri-environmental measures is a complex substantive, organisational and participatory process. Decision-makers are faced with the difficult task of selecting appropriate design of measures, while the available options and their (dis)advantages are in most part not readily available. The purpose of this paper is to outline a typology of possible AEM in terms of the basis for payments, coordination of actions and selection of beneficiaries. Furthermore, the paper provides an overview of the applicability and implementation of particular measures in practice, which is based on a literature review and an analysis of measures in the EU and EFTA Member States. In the European Union, AEM are among the essential instruments in the field of environmental protection and nature conservation. However, research shows that despite a substantial budgetary allocation, AEM have relatively small environmental impacts. Over the last two decades, various new designs of AEM have been tested in an attempt to improve their environmental effectiveness and efficiency. Predominantly management-based measures are thus becoming more result-oriented and more spatially targeted. Some European countries have also piloted the implementation of collective action by farmers and other stakeholders to achieve environmental and nature conservation objectives.

Lower diversity of plant and animal farmland species are usually reported where cropland has been aggregated into larger fields, which raises prospects of curbing declines in European farmland biodiversity and associated ecosystem services by halting trends to field size increases associated to agricultural intensification, without having to set aside arable land for conservation. Here, we consider the factors underlying trade‐offs between farmer income and biodiversity as mediated by field size at local and landscape scales, and how these trade‐offs may be overcome. Field sizes are still increasing, facilitated by increasing farm sizes and land consolidation. Decreases in working time and fuel expenses when fields are larger, uptake of larger machinery and subsidies favoring larger farms provide incentives to manage land in larger units, putting farmland biodiversity further at risk. Yet, field size‐mediated ecological–economic trade‐offs are largely ignored in policy and research. We recommend internalizing the ecological effects of changes in landscape‐scale field size into land consolidation scheme design, ensuring that EU Common Agricultural Policy post‐2020 rewards farmers that maintain and recreate fine‐grained landscapes where these are essential for farmland biodiversity targets, and reducing economic–ecological trade‐offs by stimulating agricultural research and innovation for economically efficient yet biodiversity‐friendly farming in fine‐grained landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arable weeds are key organisms for biodiversity maintenance and ecosystem service provision in agroecosystems. Disentangling the drivers of weed diversity is critical to counteract the global decline of farmland biodiversity. Even if distinct scale-dependent processes were alternatively proposed, no general framework unifying the multi-scale drivers of weed dynamics has yet emerged. Here, we investigate the joint effects of field- and landscape-scale processes on weed assemblages in 444 arable fields. First, field margins sheltered greater weed diversity than field core, evidencing their role as biodiversity refugia. Second, community similarity between field core and margin decreased with the distance to margin, highlighting a major role of local dispersal. Third, weed diversity at field margins increased with organic field cover in the landscape, pointing out massive regional dispersal. Fourth, while both local and landscape dispersal explained up to 41% of field core weed diversity, crop type strongly modulated their strength, depicting an intense filtering effect by agricultural management. This study sheds new light on the complex multi-scale interactions shaping weed diversity, field margins playing a key role by strengthening regional dispersal and sustaining local dispersal. Land-sharing strategies improving habitat heterogeneity both locally and regionally should largely promote agroecosystem multifunctionality and sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Excessive cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.) as a biogas substrate has fired debate about potential land‐use change effects of bioenergy cropping systems. Cup plant (Silphium perfoliatum L.) is a perennial biogas crop that provides more environmental services than maize. This study investigated (i) how to replace maize with cup plant as a biogas substrate in a large‐scale biogas plant located in southwest Germany, and (ii) how to optimize the energy and material cycles of such a biogas plant given the new feedstock. The biogas plant produces 1000 m3 biogas per hour with plans for it to be combined with a large dairy farm (1000 dairy units). It was found that the substitution of maize with cup plant as a biogas substrate results in a methane yield reduction of 10% to 20% due to lower biomass yields. However, there exists a strong potential to increase both biomass yields and biogas substrate quality of cup plant by optimizing establishment procedures and better genotypes. Furthermore, cup plant provides food and shelter for open land animals, including birds and insects, and could hence be a suitable alternative to maize for large biogas plants, being more environmentally beneficial. Extracting proteins from cup‐plant biomass could also help replace soy with locally produced protein for feeding cattle. Hydrothermal carbonization is a promising tool for closing nutrient cycles and for extracting phosphate from digestate, but more research is needed before it can be put into practice. © 2020 The Authors. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining published by Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cover crops can enhance biodiversity in perennial agroecosystems, with native cover crops potentially having additional biodiversity benefits. We assessed the effect of native cover crops on vineyard arthropods in the Cape Floristic Region using pitfall traps and vacuum sampling. Generalized linear mixed models and Permanova analyses were used to compared the abundance, species richness and assemblage structure of soil surface-active (free living arthropods found on the soil surface) and plant-dwelling arthropods (arthropods found predominately on the vegetation). We also used model selection and BIO-ENV to determine environmental drivers of arthropod diversity among three treatments of vineyards with bare ground, exotic cover crops or native cover crops, and nearby fynbos remnants as reference sites. Vineyards with native cover crops had significantly higher overall plant-dwelling species richness (52.57 ± 3.03), compared to exotic cover crop (28.64 ± 2.66), bare ground vineyards (18.57 ± 2.98) and even the fynbos sites (21.29 ± 1.78). A similar trend was found for overall plant-dwelling arthropod abundance. In contrast, surface-active arthropod richness was not influenced by treatment, whereas surface-active abundance was higher in less densely vegetated sites. Generally, plant-dwelling arthropods responded strongly to vegetation-related variables, whereas surface-active arthropods were responsive to soil-related parameters. Assemblages in vineyards with native cover crops did not resemble those in the natural reference sites as expected, likely due to disturbance factors, and plant compositional and structural differences. However, both surface-active and plant-dwelling assemblages had a high proportion of unique species in the native cover crop than found in the other treatments. Our results show that native cover crops enhance foliar arthropod diversity over and above exotic cover crops and contributes to farm-scale compositional heterogeneity. It therefore has potential to reduce arthropod diversity loss within farmlands and to contribute to more resilient vineyard agroecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organic farming has potential for the conservation of global biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. Despite this, knowledge of the effects of organic farming systems on farmland biodiversity is limited in Asia, the worldwide leader in rice production.We conducted the first national‐scale study to investigate the effects of three different rice farming systems (conventional, low‐input and organic) and specific management practices (e.g. herbicide and insecticide applications, crop rotation and levee‐vegetation management) on species richness and abundance of multiple taxonomic groups (plants, invertebrates, Pelophylax and Hyla japonica frogs, cobitid loaches and birds) in Japan during 2013–2015.Organic fields supported the highest richness and abundance of several taxonomic groups (native/Red List plants, Tetragnatha spiders, Sympetrum dragonflies and Pelophylax frogs), followed by low‐input and conventional fields. We also found taxon‐specific responses to specific management practices. For instance, plant richness and Tetragnatha and Sympetrum abundance increased with reduced herbicide and/or insecticide applications. Sympetrum and cobitid loach abundance increased in the absence of crop rotation, whereas H. japonica abundance increased with crop rotation. Pelophylax abundance increased with an increased height of levee vegetation.At spatial scales larger than single fields, waterbird richness and abundance were positively correlated with the proportion of organic rice fields, presumably due to increased prey abundance. Meanwhile, landbird richness and abundance were positively associated with annual precipitation and annual mean temperature, suggesting that such climate increases food availability.Synthesis and applications. We highlight the positive effects of organic and low‐input farming for biodiversity relative to conventional farming in rice paddies. We also provide the scientific basis of the current agri‐environmental schemes in Japan, subsidising organic and low‐input farming for biodiversity. The taxon‐specific associations with management practices indicate that avoiding crop rotation, maintaining levee vegetation and organic farming at large spatial scales can also be wildlife friendly. These practices may thus be incorporated into agri‐environment schemes for effective biodiversity conservation. We highlight the positive effects of organic and low‐input farming for biodiversity relative to conventional farming in rice paddies. We also provide the scientific basis of the current agri‐environmental schemes in Japan, subsidising organic and low‐input farming for biodiversity. The taxon‐specific associations with management practices indicate that avoiding crop rotation, maintaining levee vegetation and organic farming at large spatial scales can also be wildlife friendly. These practices may thus be incorporated into agri‐environment schemes for effective biodiversity conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Understanding how species richness is distributed across landscapes and which variables may be used as predictors is important for spatially targeting management interventions. This study uses finely resolved data over a large geographical area to explore relationships between land-use intensity, habitat heterogeneity and species richness of multiple taxa. It aims to identify surrogate landscape metrics, valid for a range of taxa, which can be used to map and monitor High Nature Value farmland (HNV). Results show that variation in species richness is distributed along two axes: land-use intensity and habitat heterogeneity. At low intensity land-use, species rich groups include wetland plants, plant habitat indicators, upland birds and rare invertebrates, whilst richness of other species groups (farmland birds, butterflies, bees) was associated with higher land-use intensity. Habitat heterogeneity (broadleaved woodland connectivity, hedgerows, habitat diversity) was positively related to species richness of many taxa, both generalists (plants, butterflies, bees) and specialists (rare birds, woodland birds, plants, butterflies). The results were used to create maps of HNV farmland. The proportion of semi-natural vegetation is a useful metric for identifying HNV type 1. HNV type 2 (defined as a mosaic of low-intensity habitats and structural elements) is more difficult to predict from surrogate variables, due to complex relationships between biodiversity and habitat heterogeneity and inadequacies of current remotely sensed data. This approach, using fine-scaled field survey data collected at regular intervals, in conjunction with remotely sensed data offers potential for extrapolating modelled results nationally, and importantly, can be used to assess change over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise of the Study: Despite long‐term research efforts, a comprehensive perspective on the ecological and functional properties determining plant weediness is still lacking. We investigated here key functional attributes of arable weeds compared to non‐weed plants, at large spatial scale. Methods: We used an intensive survey of plant communities in cultivated and non‐cultivated habitats to define a pool of plants occurring in arable fields (weeds) and one of plants occurring only in open non‐arable habitats (non‐weeds) in France. We compared the two pools based on nine functional traits and three functional spaces (LHS, reproductive and resource requirement hypervolumes). Within the weed pool, we quantified the trait variation of weeds along a continuum of specialization to arable fields. Key Results: Weeds were mostly therophytes and had higher specific leaf area, earlier and longer flowering, and higher affinity for nutrient‐rich, sunny and dry environments compared to non‐weeds, although functional spaces of weeds and non‐weeds largely overlapped. When fidelity to arable fields increased, the spectrum of weed ecological strategies decreased as did the overlap with non‐weeds, especially for the resource requirement hypervolume. Conclusions: Arable weeds constitute a delimited pool defined by a trait syndrome providing tolerance to the ecological filters of arable fields (notably, regular soil disturbances and fertilization). The identification of such a syndrome is of great interest to predict the weedy potential of newly established alien plants. An important reservoir of plants may also become weeds after changes in agricultural practices, considering the large overlap between weeds and non‐weeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) are traditionally thought of as being a rural dwelling species, associated with rural and agricultural landscapes across Europe. However, recent studies have highlighted that hedgehogs are more likely to be found in urban than rural habitats in the United Kingdom. Here, we review the status of rural hedgehog populations across the UK and evaluate the potential benefits of agri-environment schemes for hedgehog persistence, while highlighting a lack of empirical evidence that agri-environment options will benefit hedgehog populations. Our synthesis has implications for future conservation strategies for hedgehogs and insectivorous mammals living in agricultural landscapes, and calls for more empirical studies on agri-environment options and their potential benefits to hedgehogs.

Highlights • Wheat variety mixtures have contrasting effects on aboveground arthropod communities. • Wheat intraspecific diversity has a weak positive effect on predator abundances. • Wheat intraspecific and functional diversity have a weak negative effect on spider evenness. • Few wheat stand characteristics have effects on ground or rove beetles. Abstract Although modern agriculture generally relies on homogeneous varieties that are usually grown in pure stands, crop variety mixtures have been used for a long time, notably to improve resistance to fungal diseases. A growing number of studies suggest that intraspecific plant diversity may also enhance the abundance and diversity of wild species and thereby some ecosystem services such as biological control by natural predators. However, positive effects of the genetic diversity of plant species on the diversity of associated communities have mostly been documented in natural systems, with only a handful of studies targeting crop species in agroecosystems. Here, we investigated the ecological effects of the number of winter wheat varieties (Triticum aestivum) on aboveground arthropods and particularly predatory species. We manipulated the number of wheat varieties (1, 2, 4 or 8) in 120 plots (80 m2 each) to examine how wheat diversity and stand characteristics impact communities of three dominant aboveground arthropod groups that include many predatory species: ground beetles, rove beetles and spiders. The number of wheat varieties had a weak, but positive effect on predator abundance, notably spider abundance. In contrast, wheat functional diversity, as assessed by the number of wheat functional groups, was only negatively related to the diversity of spiders. Among wheat stand characteristics, the variance in plant height, wheat biomass and the Green Area Index were weakly correlated with ground beetle, rove beetle and predatory diversity, respectively. The Green Area Index was also weakly correlated with ground beetle abundance. Our study suggests that wheat variety mixtures have variable and limited effects on aboveground arthropods and probably low effectiveness to enhance biological control, but these results should be further tested under low-input agriculture in real fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Increasing landscape heterogeneity of agroecosystems can enhance natural enemy populations and promote biological control. However, little is known about the multiscale effects of landscape heterogeneity on arthropod communities in rice agroecosystems, especially in combination with trophic interactions. We examined for the first time how landscape heterogeneity, measured by four independent metrics of landscape composition and configuration at three spatial scales, affected species abundance and species richness of rice arthropods within four functional groups and the abundance of the most common species at 28 sites in the Philippines. We additionally examined the influence of trophic interactions among these functional groups. We found that both the compositional and configurational landscape heterogeneity in combination with trophic interactions determined the structure of rice‐arthropod communities. Herbivore abundance decreased with increasing landscape diversity. The abundance of parasitoids and species richness of both parasitoids and predators increased with the structural connectivity of rice bunds. Fragmentation of the rice landscape had a clear negative effect on most arthropod groups, except for highly mobile predatory arthropods. Abundance of common predators and detritivore species decreased with increasing complexity in the shape of rice patches. Trophic interactions, measured as the abundance of prey, outweighed the importance of landscape heterogeneity for predators. In contrast, parasitoids responded positively to configurational landscape heterogeneity but were unaffected by prey abundance. Synthesis and applications. Our research shows how landscape heterogeneity and trophic interactions have different effects on different functional groups. While predator abundance was solely driven by the availability of prey, all other functional groups in the rice‐arthropod community were significantly affected by the composition and configuration of surrounding landscape features. Landscape management aiming to improve biodiversity and biological control in rice agroecosystems should promote a diversity of land uses and habitat types within 100–300 m radii to reduce the presence of pests. Management practices should also focus on maintaining smaller rice patches and the structural connectivity of rice bunds to enhance populations of the natural enemies of rice pests. Future research should focus on the temporal and spatial manipulation of rice fields to maximize the effects of biological control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Landscape‐level crop diversification is a promising tool for ecological intensification, whereby biodiversity and ecosystem services are enhanced, and pesticide applications reduced. Yet evidence for the effects of crop diversity at multiple scales and in different landscape contexts is lacking. Here, we investigate the potential benefits and context dependencies of multiscale crop diversity on natural enemies and overall biological control in winter wheat. Simultaneously, we examine the mediating effects of bird predation on aphid regulation in this system. Eighteen conventional winter wheat fields were selected along two independent gradients of crop diversity and semi‐natural habitat cover (SNH). We assessed biological control using a natural enemy exclusion experiment (“Open Treatment,” “Bird Exclosure,” “Full Exclosure”). Biological control, predator and parasitoid densities within cages were analysed as functions of landscape (crop diversity × SNH), bird predation (yes/no) and temporal change (three surveys) on six spatial scales (100–3,000 m). Crop diversity rather than SNH enhanced aphid regulation in our study system. Biological control in fields with high landscape‐level crop diversity was 8%–33% higher than in low‐diversity landscapes, with main effects observed on scales <500 m. Predator and parasitoid densities increased with crop diversity on small (100–250 m) and large (2,000–3,000 m) spatial scales respectively. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that natural enemies other than birds, parasitoids and aerial arthropods facilitated biological control. Synthesis and applications. Our study shows that landscape‐level crop diversification can improve biological control in agroecosystems. Therefore, increased crop diversity could lower dependence on insecticides while enhancing yield stability through ecological intensification of farming. We also highlight the need to assess biological control rather than natural enemy abundances to avoid bias due to sampling artefacts or species interactions. Finally, simple measures of crop diversity (e.g. “effective number of crop types”) help in science communication and the development of farm management guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-taxonomic surrogates are often used in conservation planning because inventorying large suites of taxa is either not feasible or too costly. However, cross-taxonomic surrogates are seldom tested rigorously using both correlational and representation-based approaches at the spatial scales at which conservation management occurs. Here, we evaluated the effectiveness of five ecologically contrasting taxa (birds, herpetofauna, wild bees, beetles, trees) as cross-taxonomic surrogates in native woodland patches within a heavily modified, farming and plantation-dominated landscape. We first compared species richness and compositional heterogeneity across taxa before testing for cross-taxonomic congruence using a correlative approach. We then quantified how well each taxon incidentally represented other taxa in their best patch sets, and the costs of doing so using a complementarity-based approach. We found significant pairwise associations between some taxa (birds, bees), but no single taxon was strongly correlated with all other taxa. Woodland patch sets prioritised for beetles represented other taxa best, followed by birds, but were the costliest and required the largest amount of woodland. This contrasted with patch sets prioritised for wild bees or herpetofauna, which achieved higher representation of other taxa at lower costs. Our study highlighted the influence of taxon-specific patterns of diversity and heterogeneity on how remnant vegetation patches should be prioritised for conservation, a consideration not immediately obvious in correlative analyses of surrogacy. Second, taxa that are not the most speciose (e.g. wild bees) can be efficient surrogates, achieving higher incidental representation for other taxa at lower costs. Thus, while species-rich taxa are ideal as surrogates for prioritising conservation, conservation planners should not overlook the potential of less speciose taxa such as bees, while considering the cost-effectiveness of surveying multiple different taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Wild bees are declining in intensively farmed regions worldwide, threatening pollination services to flowering crops and wild plants. To halt bee declines, it is essential that conservation actions are based on a mechanistic understanding of how bee species utilize landscapes. We aimed at teasing apart how foraging resources in the landscape through the nesting season affected nesting and reproduction of a solitary bee in a farmland region. We investigated how availability of floral resources and potentially resource‐rich habitats surrounding nests affected nest provisioning and reproduction in the solitary polylectic bee Osmia bicornis. The study was performed in 18 landscape sectors dominated by agriculture, but varying in agricultural intensity in terms of proportion of organic crop fields and seminatural permanent pastures. Pasture‐rich sectors contained more oak (Quercus robur), which pollen analysis showed to be favored forage in early season. More oaks ≤100 m from nests led to higher proportions of oak pollen in nest provisions and increased speed of nest construction in early season, but this effect tapered off as flowering decreased. Late‐season pollen foraging was dominated by buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), common in various noncrop habitats. Foraging trips were longer with more oaks and increased further through the season. The opposite was found for buttercup. Oak and buttercup interacted to explain the number of offspring; buttercup had a positive effect only when the number of oaks was above the mean for the studied sectors. The results show that quality of complex and pasture‐rich landscapes for O. bicornis depends on preserving existing and generating new oak trees. Lignose plants are key early‐season forage resources in agricultural landscapes. Increasing habitat heterogeneity with trees and shrubs and promoting suitable late‐flowering forbs can benefit O. bicornis and other wild bees active in spring and early summer, something which existing agri‐environment schemes seldom target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]