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Aims: Trait impulsivity and trait rumination appear to uniquely contribute to problem gambling. However, only a limited number of studies have investigated their relationship with each other, and no study has tested whether their interplay could explain problem gambling. In this study, we aimed to examine these associations, especially focusing on the putative moderator role of gender., Methods: The present study utilized data from the first wave of the Budapest Longitudinal Study, representatively surveying young adults. The final, weighted sample consisted of N = 1202 (649 men; mean age = 28.04 years; SD = 4.31) participants who reported gambling in the past year. Gambling severity was assessed by the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), trait impulsivity was measured by Barratt Impulsiveness Scale short form (BIS-R-10), while rumination was assessed by the short version of Ruminative Response Scale (RRS)., Results: Multiple linear regression analysis showed significant positive association between impulsivity and problematic gambling, and we found that both trait rumination and gender moderated this association, even after controlling for depressed mood, age, level of education, and subjective relative wealth. For men, when the level of trait rumination was high, higher levels of trait impulsivity were associated with an increase in gambling problems. However, these associations were not found among women., Conclusions: Our results suggested that the interplay of trait rumination and trait impulsivity might contribute to problem gambling, potentially by the impulsive desire to alleviate negative mood states. Our results also revealed that these associations could be stronger among men than in women., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest None., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Several studies have explored the relationship between personality and work addiction, suggesting that individuals with certain mental disorders, including personality disorders such as obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), may be more prone to work addiction. However, the characterization of personality organization (PO) among workaholics and its contribution to the persistence of work addiction remains unclear., Methods: In this longitudinal study of a representative sample of young adults (N = 1748), we applied the Bergen Work Addiction Scale and the Inventory of Personality Organization., Results: We found significant correlations between work addiction and identity diffusion, primitive psychological defenses, reality testing, and overall personality disorganization across three waves. A latent class growth analysis revealed three profiles: no work addiction, increasing work addiction, and constant moderate work addiction. Multinomial logistic regression analysis indicated that higher levels of personality disorganization in wave 1 and increases in personality disorganization between waves 1 and 3 were associated with higher odds of belonging to the increasing work addiction group. Similarly, higher overall personality disorganization in wave 1 was associated with higher odds of belonging to the constant moderate work addiction group., Conclusion: These findings suggest that individuals with chronic work addiction have lower levels of PO, and PO declines as work addiction persists. Screenings for work addiction are recommended to prevent potential mental health issues. Future research should explore the influence of workplace characteristics and work motivations on the association between work addiction and personality disorders., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest None of the authors declare any competing interests., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Esports gambling has steadily grown in popularity alongside esports itself. While research has been increasing in the field of esports-related gambling, no study has yet reviewed the relevant literature on esports gambling. The present study aimed to comprehensively review all empirical research conducted in the wider field of esports gambling. A systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines was undertaken using PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Only empirical studies were included and were also assessed for potential biases using the ROBUST guidelines. A total of 30 studies from eight countries were included in the review. Esports gamblers were found more likely to be young males, likely to score high on problematic gambling scales, and likely to belong to households speaking a non-English language at home in English speaking countries. Esports gamblers are a unique type of gambling population, with rare characteristics and behaviors compared to other types of gamblers. Given the limited number of studies, there is a need for further research in this field to understand these populations, as well as the need for longitudinal research., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Background: Previous studies have emphasized the role of religiosity as both a protective factor and a factor contributing to the success of recovery in the case of addictive beahaviors. However, the associations between religious status and the involvement in distinct addictive behaviors as well as the associations between religious status and psychological factors have not been comprehensively examined. Therefore, the aims of the present study were to extend the literature by examining the (i) relationship between religiosity and distinct addictive behaviors including substance use and behavioral addictions, and (ii) interactive effects of religious status and psychological factors on addictive behaviors., Material and Methods: Data from two representative samples were analyzed (National Survey on Addiction Problems in Hungary [NSAPH]: N = 1385; 46.8% male; mean age = 41.77 years [SD = 13.08]; and Budapest Longitudinal Study [BLS]: N = 3890; 48.4% male; mean age = 27.06 years [SD = 4.76]). Distinct addictive behaviors and psychological factors related to the psychological proneness to addictive behaviors (impulsivity, sensation seeking, rumination, well-being, mentalization, and worry) were comprehensively examined in relation to religious status (religious, agnostic, and non-religious). Chi-square, Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney (MW) tests and multinomial logistic regressions were performed., Results: Religious individuals showed significantly lower involvement in addictive behaviors whereas agnostic individuals showed significantly higher involvement in addictive behaviors. With regards to psychological factors related to the proneness to addictive behaviors, agnostic individuals showed the highest level of psychological proneness. The results of multinomial regression models showed that religiosity was protective in the NSAPH sample. However, worry could overwrite the protective effect. In the BLS study, the protective role of religiosity was uncertain. It was not protective in itself, but through interaction with sensation seeking, rumination and uncertian mentalization, religiosity can also be protective., Discussion: The findings highlight the general protective role of religiosity in addictions. However, interaction with some psychological contructs can modify the protective role of religious status. The study also highlights the need to take into account agnostic religious status of individuals in future research. Consequently, further studies are needed to explore the causality and mediating roles between these variables., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest ELTE Eötvös Loránd University receives funding from the Szerencsejáték Ltd. to maintain a telephone helpline service for problematic gambling. The University of Gibraltar receives funding from the Gibraltar Gambling Care Foundation, an independent charity. Mark D. Griffiths' university has received research funding from Norsk Tipping (the gambling operator owned by the Norwegian Government). Griffiths has also received funding for a number of research projects in the area of gambling education for young people, social responsibility in gambling and gambling treatment from Gamble Aware (formerly the Responsible Gambling Trust), a charitable body which funds its research program based on donations from the gambling industry. Griffiths also regularly undertakes consultancy for various gaming companies in the area of player protection and social responsibility in gambling. However, these funding sources are not related to this paper and the funding institution had no role in the study design or the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication. All other authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Only a few studies have investigated the relationship between risk for gambling disorder (GD) and mentalization difficulties. However, these results on positive correlations were all from cross-sectional studies; therefore, it would be important to investigate the longitudinal relationship between the constructs., Aims: It was aimed to identify subgroups of gamblers with different joint growth trajectories of risk for GD and hypomentalization (i.e., uncertainty of understanding own and others' mental states) and to compare the identified latent classes along impulsivity, sensation seeking and depression., Methods: Data from waves 1-3 of the Budapest Longitudinal Study were used. The final sample included 219 young adult gamblers who completed the study questionnaire and reported past-year gambling in all three waves (Females: N = 93 [42.29%]; Mean age: 28.36 years [SD = 4.29]). Standardized questionnaires were administered to measure the main constructs., Results: A four-class model was retained based on latent class growth analysis. Class 1 had consistently moderately high risk for GD and hypomentalization, and Class 4 presented consistently low risk for GD and hypomentalization. Classes 2-3 were characterized by low risk for GD and increasing hypomentalization. Class 1 had significantly higher sensation seeking and depression compared with the other subgroups in multiple cases. Class 4 showed significantly lower impulsivity and sensation seeking than the other classes., Conclusions: Elevated hypomentalization was presented among individuals with risk for GD. However, there is little empirical evidence to support that the two constructs have convergently changing trajectories. A cautious interpretation of the results is recommended due to low symptom presence., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The University of Gibraltar receives funding from the Gibraltar Gambling Care Foundation, an independent, not-for-profit charity. ELTE Eötvös Loránd University receives funding from Szerencsejáték Ltd. (the gambling operator of the Hungarian government) to maintain a telephone helpline service for problematic gambling. None of these funding sources are related to this study, and the funding institution had no role in the study design or the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data, the writing of the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Approval/disapproval of substance use behavior might have a role in the development and persistence of substance use. However, less is known about the measurement function of disapproval of using different types of psychoactive substances. By using item response analyses, the present study aimed to examine the latent structure as well as item-level measurement properties of the construct of substance use disapproval. Methods: Nationally representative adult samples derived from the National Survey on Addiction Problems in Hungary from 2015 (N=2274) and 2019 (N=1385) were used in the present study. Dichotomous items measured the disapproval of eleven forms of substance use, such as smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol and different forms of illicit drug use. Results: A unidimensional measurement model of substance use disapproval was supported. Item response analyses indicated that disapproval of alcohol use and cigarette smoking had moderate discrimination capacity and were located at moderately low-moderately high levels of the substance use disapproval continuum, whereas illicit substance use forms had high-very high discrimination capacities and were ranged at low-very low levels of the disapproval spectrum. Disapproval of experimenting with heroin, ecstasy and designer stimulants had the highest information capacity in 2015, whereas in 2019 disapproval of experimenting with synthetic cannabinoids and experimenting with and using occasionally cannabis were the most informative. Conclusions: Less permissive attitudes were shown for all forms of illicit drug use compared to alcohol and cigarette use. Discrimination and difficulty levels of disapproval of substance use might be associated with legal status of psychoactive substances. (Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2022; 24(2): 85–94)

Objectives: This paper presents the methods and main methodological fi ndings of the third wave of data collection of the National Survey on Addiction Problems in Hungary (NSAPH). In addition to mapping the addiction problems of the Hungarian population and monitoring the general population addiction trends in Hungary, the research formulates objectives for the development of the methodology used in addiction research. The study presents the measurement tools used in the research, the sampling and data collection strategy, as well as the methodological results related to sample access and the reliability and validity of the applied measurement tools used., Methods: The research was carried out on a nationally representative sample of the Hungarian adult population aged 16-64 yrs (gross sample 1800, net sample 1385 persons). The extent of the theoretical margin of error in the sample is ±2,6%, at a reliability level of 95%. Sample attrition was corrected by matrix weighting by layer categories. The research aimed at studying the different type substance use behaviours (smoking, alcohol use and other psychoactive substances) as well as several behavioural addictions (problematic internet use, problematic online gaming, problematic social media use, problematic gambling, exercise addictions, eating disorders, work addiction, compulsive buying, problematic mobile phone use)., Results: Based on the analysis of reliability and the extent of non-sampling errors within the context of the database we concluded that valid and reliable statements can be formulated on the basis of the research data regarding the current characteristics and patterns of the examined addiction behaviours. At the same time, in case of psychoactive substance use the observed trends of non-sampling errors indicate that the analysis of the changes requires outstanding attention whilst interpreting them; in some cases correction procedures might become necessary during estimating and interpreting the tendencies. This wave of the research was the first which examined the reliability and validity of prevalence data related to behavioural addictions. Based on this analysis it can be said that these data are less exposed to non-sampling errors than the ones related to substance use.

Introduction: New psychoactive substances (NPS) pose a public health threat. Many studies have tried to identify the reasons of NPS use; however, none of them have so far used any standardised measures. The aim of this study was (i) to develop and cross-culturally validate the New Psychoactive Substance Use Motives Measure (NPSMM) and (ii) to compare motives of NPS use across countries and user types., Methods: Three subgroups (socially marginalised users, nightlife attendees and members of online communities) of NPS users ( N = 3023) were recruited from six EU member countries. Demographics, motives and types of NPS used were assessed. NPS use motives were measured by adapting the extended six-factor version of the Marijuana Motives Measure., Results: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis resulted in a similar five-factor solution across most of the countries: coping, enhancement, social, conformity and expansion motives. Marginalised users scored higher on coping and conformity motives, nightlife groups showed higher endorsement of social motive, whereas online community users showed higher scores on expansion motives. Various types of NPS were also associated with different motives., Conclusion: NPS use motives might be associated with both the groups of users and the specific types of NPS being consumed. Expansion (psychedelics) and enhancement (stimulants) motives seemed to be linked to the chosen NPS product type, while coping, social and conformity motives were rather associated with user groups. NPSMM was found to be a valid instrument to measure NPS motives.

The standard nature of the procedures and tools of sampling and data collection cannot guarantee the stability of data reliability and validity because non-sampling errors are highly sensitive to social conditions. The present study provides a post-hoc attempt to estimate and manage the changing methodological parameters of self-report surveys of addictive behaviours (being highly subjected to changes in social conditions) to make data interpretation easier. The analysis is based on the data of two national Hungarian representative surveys assessing addiction problems in 2007 and 2015 (National Survey on Addiction Problems in Hungary [NSAPH]). Both surveys were conducted using a Hungarian nationwide representative sample aged 18-64 years applying similar procedures in data collection and -processing. Regarding data concerning substance use, both surveys included variables to estimate non-sampling errors in line with current international practices. The methodological parameters of NSAPH2015 showed an increase in non-sampling errors regarding substance use behaviour compared to NSAPH2007. The present paper elaborates an estimation procedure based on the assumption that when following a population, the proportion of people who have ever engaged in a specific type of addictive behaviour cannot be reduced in the given population over time. This also applies to cohorts followed by cross-sectional surveys among national representative samples, as far as lifetime prevalence and data on the age of first use/activity is available. To identify valid trends in different behaviours in epidemiological research assessing addictive behaviours or other sensitive data, researchers should provide the required conditions for controlling or correcting data by cohort analysis.

Introduction: Although work addiction has been first described in the 1970s, research on the field has only become intensified during the last decades. Symptoms of work addiction are similar to the characteristics of other behavioral addictions (e.g., tolerance, intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts, and withdrawal symptoms). Until today, only one nationally representative survey was conducted (in Norway) to estimate the prevalence of work addic - tion. Our aim was to explore the prevalence of work addiction in the Hungarian population and define the possible risk and protective factors of the problem., Methods: The study was carried out on a nationally representative sample of the Hungarian adult population aged 16-64 years (N=2274) with the age group of 18-34 being over-representing. The weighted sample of the 18-64-yearold population covered 1490 individuals. Several sociodemographic variables were collected and the following measurements were applied: Bergen Work Addiction Scale; Brief Symptom Inventory; Barratt Impulsiveness Scale; and Well-Being Inventory., Results: 8% (95% CI ± 1.38%) of the Hungarian adult population currently having a job has been classified to be atrisk for work addiction, which means 4.7% (95% CI ± 1.07%) for the whole adult population. Binary logistic regression analyses identified the following risk factors: being female, higher satisfaction with the current job, dissatisfaction with the current health status, more frequent psychiatric symptoms, and a higher level of (motor) impulsiveness., Conclusion: We could identify several risk factors of work addiction and our results can be applied both in future research and in the practice of clinical psychology and work psychology. Our results have also highlighted that work addiction can be categorized closer to the impulsive end of the obsessive-compulsive spectrum.

Background: Work has a crucial role in individuals' productivity, social life, and psychological well-being. Despite various definitions of work addiction in the literature, the number of psychometrically reliable instruments is limited., Objectives: The aim of this study was to psychometrically test and revise the factor structure of the Work Addiction Risk Test (WART), one of the most widely used instruments assessing work addiction., Method: The full version of the WART [Robinson, Post, & Khakee, 1992] was assessed using a nationally representative sample of Hungary (n = 2,710). To increase validity, the analyses were conducted among individuals who worked at least 40 h a week (n = 1,286, 43% women, mean age = 38.9 years, SD = 10.8)., Results: Using confirmatory factor analysis, the originally proposed 4- and 5-factor solutions did not have adequate model fit indices. Thus, the sample was randomly divided into 2 subsamples. Exploratory factor analysis conducted in the first half of the sample supported a 4-factor solution, which was confirmed in the other half of the sample. The Work Addiction Risk Test Revised (WART-R) comprises 17 items and 4 factors (i.e., Overcommitment, Impatience, Hard-working, and Salience). Using a latent class analysis, a cutoff score (51 points out of 68) for the high risk of work addiction was determined. Almost one in 10 participants (9.3%) were identified as being symptomatic of work addiction, and these individuals also reported an elevated level of mental distress and hostility., Conclusions: As a conclusion, the WART-R is suitable to be used as an indicator of work addiction based on clinically relevant symptom dimensions., (© 2019 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Background: Different classification models have been proposed to explain the heterogeneity of alcohol-related problems in general populations. Such models suggest quantitatively or qualitatively different symptom endorsement characteristics between subgroups of alcohol drinkers., Objectives: The present study aimed to identify homogenous subgroups of drinkers in a general population sample in addition to examining the relationship between the subgroups and psychopathological symptoms., Method: Data of past-year alcohol users (n = 1,520) were analyzed from the nationally representative sample of the National Survey on Addiction Problems in Hungary 2015. Latent class analysis (LCA) was conducted to identify subgroups of drinkers based on the dichotomous indicator items of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test questionnaire. Multinomial logistic regression and multiple comparisons were performed to explore the relationship between latent classes and socio-demographical variables and psychopathological symptoms., Results: LCA suggested a 3-class model: "Light alcohol drinkers" (71.6%), "Alcohol drinkers with low risk of dependence" (19.3%), and "Alcohol drinkers with severe dependence symptoms" (9.1%). More severe subgroups showed significantly higher level of anxiety, depression, hostility, obsessive-compulsivity, interpersonal sensitivity, and psychiatric or alcohol use disorder-related treatment involvement. Male gender, younger age, lower level of educational achievement, and earlier onset of the first alcoholic drink were associated with membership of more severe subgroups., Conclusions: The present results indicated that severity-based subgroups of drinkers can be discriminated. Approximately 9% of the alcohol users showed severe symptoms of alcohol dependence. The present data also supported the association between more severe forms of alcohol consumption, and internalizing and externalizing characteristics. Although the 2 at-risk classes of alcohol drinkers did not differ in terms of alcohol consumption-related measures, they were distinguished by the level of harmful consequences due to alcohol use, psychopathological symptoms and psychiatric treatment history., (© 2019 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Despite the improving mental health literacy of the public over recent years, people's attitudes towards people with the diagnosis of mental illness do not appeared to have changed. Long-term studies are scarce and mainly limited to Northwestern Europe. Given that no study has ever been carried out in Hungary, the present study examined attitudinal trends towards mentally ill people in the country, and evaluated its determinants using one item of the Social Distance Scale to assess social rejection towards others. National representative surveys of Hungarian adults were conducted in 2001, 2003, 2007 and 2015 (n = 7605). By means of interview and a self-administered questionnaire, socio-demographic information, preferences for social distance, and familiarity with mental illnesses were assessed. Trend analysis demonstrated that no meaningful change had occurred in the desire for social distance over a period of 15 years. Being a woman, having low education level, and lower familiarity with mental illnesses were all related to higher preferences for social distance. However, the explanatory power of these factors was very small (4.2%). As found in other countries, attitudes towards mentally ill people have not changed in Hungary. More effort is needed to understand better and overcome social rejection concerning mental illness., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Continued diversification and use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) across Europe remains a public health challenge. The study describes health and social consequences of recent NPS use as reported in a survey of marginalised, nightlife and online NPS users in the Netherlands, Hungary, Portugal, Ireland, Germany and Poland ( n  = 3023). Some respondents were unable to categorise NPS they had used. Use of ' herbal blends ' and ' synthetic cannabinoids obtained pure ' was most reported in Germany, Poland and Hungary, and use of ' branded stimulants ' and ' stimulants/empathogens/nootropics obtained pure ' was most reported in the Netherlands. Increased heart rate and palpitation, dizziness, anxiety, horror trips and headaches were most commonly reported acute side effects. Marginalised users reported substantially more acute side effects, more mid- and long-term mental and physical problems, and more social problems. Development of country-specific NPS awareness raising initiatives, health and social service needs assessments, and targeted responses are warranted., Competing Interests: Compliance with Ethical StandardsThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

This paper introduces the methods and methodological findings of the National Survey on Addiction Problems in Hungary (NSAPH 2015). Use patterns of smoking, alcohol use and other psychoactive substances were measured as well as that of certain behavioural addictions (problematic gambling - PGSI, DSM-V, eating disorders - SCOFF, problematic internet use - PIUQ, problematic on-line gaming - POGO, problematic social media use - FAS, exercise addictions - EAI-HU, work addiction - BWAS, compulsive buying - CBS). The paper describes the applied measurement techniques, sample selection, recruitment of respondents and the data collection strategy as well. Methodological results of the survey including reliability and validity of the measures are reported. The NSAPH 2015 research was carried out on a nationally representative sample of the Hungarian adult population aged 16-64 yrs (gross sample 2477, net sample 2274 persons) with the age group of 18-34 being overrepresented. Statistical analysis of the weight-distribution suggests that weighting did not create any artificial distortion in the database leaving the representativeness of the sample unaffected. The size of the weighted sample of the 18-64 years old adult population is 1490 persons. The extent of the theoretical margin of error in the weighted sample is ±2,5%, at a reliability level of 95% which is in line with the original data collection plans. Based on the analysis of reliability and the extent of errors beyond sampling within the context of the database we conclude that inconsistencies create relatively minor distortions in cumulative prevalence rates; consequently the database makes possible the reliable estimation of risk factors related to different substance use behaviours. The reliability indexes of measurements used for prevalence estimates of behavioural addictions proved to be appropriate, though the psychometric features in some cases suggest the presence of redundant items. The comparison of parameters of errors beyond sample selection in the current and previous data collections indicates that trend estimates and their interpretation requires outstanding attention and in some cases even correction procedures might become necessary.

The Derogatis symptom checklist (SCL-90-R) and its short version, the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), are widely used instruments, despite the fact that their factor structures were not clearly confirmed. The goals of this research were to compare four measurement models of these instruments including one-factor, nine-factor, a second-ordered factor model and a bifactor model, in addition to testing the gender difference in symptom factors in a community sample. SCL-90-R was assessed in a large community survey which included 2710 adults who represent the population of Hungary. Statistical analyses included a series of confirmatory factor analyses and multiple indicator multiple cause (MIMIC modeling). The responses to items were treated as ordinal scales. The analysis revealed that the bifactor model yielded the closest fit in both the full SCL-90-R and BSI; however the nine-factor model also had an acceptable level of fit. As for the gender differences, women scored higher on global severity, somatization, obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, depression and anxiety factors. Men scored higher on hostility and psychoticism. The bifactor model of symptom checklist supports the concept of global symptom severity and specific symptom factors. Global symptom severity explains the large correlations between symptom factors., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The rise and growing popularity of online games has led to the appearance of excessive gaming that in some cases can lead to physical and psychological problems. Several measures have been developed to explore the nature and the scale of the phenomenon. However, few measures have been validated psychometrically. The aim of the present study was to test the psychometric properties of the 12-item Problematic Online Gaming Questionnaire Short-Form (POGQ-SF) and to assess the prevalence of problematic online gaming. Data collection was carried out to assess the prevalence of problematic online gaming in a national representative adolescent sample by using an offline (pen and pencil) method. A total of 5,045 secondary school students were assessed (51% male, mean age 16.4 years, SD=0.9 years) of which 2,804 were gamers (65.4% male, mean age 16.4 years, SD=0.9 years). Confirmatory factor analysis was applied to test the measurement model of problematic online gaming, and latent profile analysis was used to identify the proportion of gamers whose online game use can be considered problematic. Results showed that the original six-factor model yielded appropriate fit to the data, and thus the POGQ-SF has appropriate psychometric properties. Latent profile analysis revealed that 4.6% of the adolescents belong to a high risk group and an additional 13.3% to a low risk group. Due to its satisfactory psychometric characteristics, the 12-item POGQ-SF appears to be an adequate tool for the assessment of problematic online gaming.

Background: Online gaming has become increasingly popular. However, this has led to concerns that these games might induce serious problems and/or lead to dependence for a minority of players., Aim: The aim of this study was to uncover and operationalize the components of problematic online gaming., Methods: A total of 3415 gamers (90% males; mean age 21 years), were recruited through online gaming websites. A combined method of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied. Latent profile analysis was applied to identify persons at-risk., Results: EFA revealed a six-factor structure in the background of problematic online gaming that was also confirmed by a CFA. For the assessment of the identified six dimensions--preoccupation, overuse, immersion, social isolation, interpersonal conflicts, and withdrawal--the 18-item Problematic Online Gaming Questionnaire (POGQ) proved to be exceedingly suitable. Based on the latent profile analysis, 3.4% of the gamer population was considered to be at high risk, while another 15.2% was moderately problematic., Conclusions: The POGQ seems to be an adequate measurement tool for the differentiated assessment of gaming related problems on six subscales.

The goal of this review was to examine the current literature in the topic of problematic alcohol use, with a special focus on the epidemiological, etiological, and psychological factors to predict problem drinking in college students. We present the terminology of binge drinking used in international studies, because the diversity of definitions, units and labels tend to make international comparisons more difficult. We review the epidemiology and also short- and long-term risk factors linked to binge drinking. The biological and genetic background of alcohol use and related neurophysiologic studies are also addressed. In the last section we summarize the psychological characteristics of binge drinking besides highlighting the most recent direction of studies in the field of alcohol research, which emphasizes the role of expectations and motivation.