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The successful translation of nanostructure-based bioimaging and/or drug delivery system needs extensive in vitro and in vivo studies on biocompatibility, biodistribution, clearance, and toxicity for its diagnostic applications. Herein, we have investigated the in vitro cyto-hemocompatibility, in vivo biodistribution, clearance, and toxicity in mice after systemic administration of GdF 3 nanoparticles loaded PEGylated mesoporous carbon capsule (GdF 3 -PMCC)-based theranostic system. In vitro cyto-hemocompatibility study showed a very good biocompatibility up to concentration of 500 µg/ml. Biodistribution studies carried out from 1 h to 8 days showed that GdF 3 -PMCC was found in major organs, such as liver, kidney, spleen, and muscle till 4th day and it was negligible in any tissue after 8th day. The clearance study was carried out for a period of 8 days and it was observed that the urinary system is the main route of excretion of GdF 3 -PMCC. The tissue toxicity study was done for 15 days and histopathological analysis indicated that the GdF 3 -PMCC based theranostic system does not have any adverse effect in tissues. Thus, PMCCs are nontoxic and can be applied as theranostic agents in contrast to the other carbon-based systems (PEGylated carbon nanotubes and PEGylated graphene oxide) which showed significant toxicity.

Japan has published safety guideline on waterproof aerosol sprays. Furthermore, the Aerosol Industry Association of Japan has adopted voluntary regulations on waterproof aerosol sprays. Aerosol particles of diameter less than 10 µm are considered as "fine particles". In order to avoid acute lung injury, this size fraction should account for less than 0.6% of the sprayed aerosol particles. In contrast, the particle size distribution of aerosols released by hand-pump sprays containing fluorine-based or silicone-based compounds have not been investigated in Japan. Thus, the present study investigated the aerosol particle size distribution of 16 household hand-pump sprays. In 4 samples, the ratio of fine particles in aerosols exceeded 0.6%. This study confirmed that several hand-pump sprays available in the Japanese market can spray fine particles. Since the hand-pump sprays use water as a solvent and their ingredients may be more hydrophilic than those of aerosol sprays, the concepts related to the safety of aerosol-sprays do not apply to the hand pump sprays. Therefore, it may be required for the hand-pump spray to develop a suitable method for evaluating the toxicity and to establish the safety guideline.

Context: Isolated outbreaks of respiratory illness associated with fluoropolymer-containing products, such as waterproofing agents and sealants, have occurred for many years in many different countries. Despite this, an assured mechanism of illness is not defined, representing a barrier to the prevention of future occurrences., Objective: To discuss the epidemiology of the respiratory illness outbreaks, proposed mechanisms of toxicity and clinical outcomes from exposure to these products., Methods: We performed a literature review using OVID Medline (January 1946 through December 2012) and PubMed (January 1950 through December 2012) using the search terms "fluoropolymer", "fluorochemical", "leather proofing", "leather protectant", "weatherproofing agent", and "waterproofing agent". Bibliographies of identified articles were screened for additional relevant studies, including non-indexed reports., Results: Fluoropolymer-associated respiratory illnesses often resemble polymer fume fever: acute respiratory symptoms predominate and are accompanied by flu-like symptoms. Outbreaks occasionally follow marketing of a new or reformulated product. Treatment with basic and supportive measures is sufficient in many cases, including fresh air and supplemental oxygen. Inhaled beta-2 adrenergic agonists and corticosteroids have been used. Toxicity may result from the fluoropolymer itself or the solvent in which it is delivered. Factors which may influence toxicity include fluoropolymer particle size, emission rate, methods of application, environmental conditions, and personal health., Conclusion: Exposure to fluoropolymer-containing waterproofing agents can cause lung injury and usually produce abrupt onset of respiratory and flu-like symptoms. Most victims improve with supportive care and supplemental oxygen. Serious outcomes, including acute respiratory distress syndrome and death, are uncommon. Proprietary information on the exact composition of most fluoropolymer-containing products is often unavailable, and this hinders identification of an exact cause of disease. The etiology is most likely multifactorial. Future research should focus on determining the exact mechanism of illness and establishing safe exposure limits.

Gold nanoparticles coated with fluorinated ligands (F-MPCs) present features suitable for (19)F MRI as observed from phantom experiments. Cellular uptake, by HeLa cells, and toxicity of fluorescent dye-decorated F-MPCs are presented together with their ability to bind hydrophobic molecules allowing for a potential combination of targeting, delivery and imaging features.

Upconversion luminescence (UCL) properties and radioactivity have been integrated into NaLuF(4):(153)Sm,Yb,Tm nanoparticles by a facile one-step hydrothermal method, making these nanoparticles potential candidates for UCL and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) dual-modal bioimaging in vivo. The introduction of small amount of radioactive (153)Sm(3+) can hardly vary the upconversion luminescence properties of the nanoparticles. The as-designed nanoparticles showed very low cytotoxicity, no obvious tissue damage in 7 days, and excellent in vitro and in vivo performances in dual-modal bioimaging. By means of a combination of UCL and SPECT imaging in vivo, the distribution of the nanoparticles in living animals has been studied, and the results indicated that these particles were mainly accumulated in the liver and spleen. Therefore, the concept of (153)Sm(3+)/Yb(3+)/Tm(3+) co-doped NaLuF(4) nanoparticles for UCL and SPECT dual-modality imaging in vivo of whole-body animals may serve as a platform for next-generation probes for ultra-sensitive molecular imaging from the cellular scale to whole-body evaluation. It also introduces an easy methodology to quantify in vivo biodistribution of nanomaterials which still needs further understanding as a community., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Multi-year follow-up of 358 workers of aluminum pot rooms, including 165 individuals suffering from fluorosis, has shown significant changes in the clinical picture of the chronic occupational fluorine intoxication, developed under modern conditions of production, at lower concentrations of fluorine compounds in the air of working area. In this connection, the pathology of the musculoskeletal system plays the dominating role in this clinical picture and has the large variability of combinations of the individual sections destructions of the bone tissue. The main criterion to establish the phase of the disease is still the number and severity of the signs of this destruction. The visceral pathology in contemporary production circumstances is registered with less frequency and loses a number of the previously described clinical manifestations, however, is still of some importance to identify the early signs of the disease and to prevent the dental fluorosis on time.

The experiment has shown the staging of the development of immune response to the chronic fluoride intoxication. Diagnostic criteria of the initial compensation stage are: leukocytosis against the background of reduced number of lymphocytes and increased one of monocytes; high levels of ceruloplasmin in blood plasma, a progressive increase in TNFalpha and cytokine IL-10. At the decompensation stage there are: leukocytosis with increased number of neutrophils; low levels of ceruloplasmin and the cytokines IL-1beta, IL-4 and the high level of TNFalpha, IL-6, IL-10. At the stage of exhaustion there are: leukopenia against the background of lymphocytosis, a high level of Hp, the low values of the level of IgM, IgG.

Three hundred 1-day-old Avian broilers were divided into four groups and fed on control diet (fluorine 23 mg/kg) and high-fluorine (F) diets (400 mg/kg, high-F group I; 800 mg/kg, high-F group II; 1200 mg/kg, high-F group III) for 42 days (n = 75/group). The growth index (GI) was obviously decreased in the three high-F groups, which indicated the inhibited development of thymus. Histopathologically, the population of thymocytes was decreased in the thymic lobule in the three high-F groups. As measured by flow cytometry, thymocytes in G(0)/G(1) phase were significantly increased while thymocytes in S phase, G(2) + M phase and proliferating index (PI) value were obviously decreased in the three high-F groups. Also, the percentage of apoptotic thymocytes was greatly increased in the three high-F groups when compared with that of control group. At the same time, the occurrence frequencies of apoptotic thymocyte were markedly increased in the three high-F groups, with the appearance of dilated endoplasmic reticulum in high-F groups II and III ultra-structurally. The results showed that excess dietary F in the range of 400-1200 mg/kg caused histological lesions, G(0)/G(1) arrest and cellular apoptosis in the thymus, which inhibited the development of thymus and finally led to impaired cellular immune function.

Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) analyses were performed using the LD(50) oral toxicity data of per- and polyfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) on rodents: rat and mouse. PFCs are studied under the EU project CADASTER which uses the available experimental data for prediction and prioritization of toxic chemicals for risk assessment by using the in silico tools. The methodology presented here applies chemometrical analysis on the existing experimental data and predicts the toxicity of new compounds. QSAR analyses were performed on the available 58 mouse and 50 rat LD(50) oral data using multiple linear regression (MLR) based on theoretical molecular descriptors selected by genetic algorithm (GA). Training and prediction sets were prepared a priori from available experimental datasets in terms of structure and response. These sets were used to derive statistically robust and predictive (both internally and externally) models. The structural applicability domain (AD) of the models were verified on 376 per- and polyfluorinated chemicals including those in REACH preregistration list. The rat and mouse endpoints were predicted by each model for the studied compounds, and finally 30 compounds, all perfluorinated, were prioritized as most important for experimental toxicity analysis under the project. In addition, cumulative study on compounds within the AD of all four models, including two earlier published models on LC(50) rodent analysis was studied and the cumulative toxicity trend was observed using principal component analysis (PCA). The similarities and the differences observed in terms of descriptors and chemical/mechanistic meaning encoded by descriptors to prioritize the most toxic compounds are highlighted.

This review underlines the importance of indoor contamination as a pathway of human exposure to hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and perfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs). There is ample evidence of substantial contamination of indoor dust with these chemicals and that their concentrations in indoor air exceed substantially those outdoors. Studies examining the relationship between body burden and exposure via indoor dust are inconsistent; while some indicate a link between body burdens and PBDE and HBCD exposure via dust ingestion, others find no correlation. Likewise, while concentrations in indoor dust and human tissues are both highly skewed, this does not necessarily imply causality. Evidence suggests exposure via dust ingestion is higher for toddlers than adults. Research priorities include identifying means of reducing indoor concentrations and indoor monitoring methods that provide the most "biologically-relevant" measures of exposure as well as monitoring a wider range of microenvironment categories. Other gaps include studies to improve understanding of the following: emission rates and mechanisms via which these contaminants migrate from products into indoor air and dust; relationships between indoor exposures and human body burdens; relevant physicochemical properties; the gastrointestinal uptake by humans of these chemicals from indoor dust; and human dust ingestion rates.

Polyfluorinated and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are used in numerous commercial products and have been ubiquitously detected in the environment as well as in the blood of humans and wildlife. To assess the combined effects caused by PFCs in mixtures, gene expression profiles were generated using a custom cDNA microarray to detect changes in primary cultured hepatocytes of rare minnows exposed to six individual PFCs (perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorononanoic acid, perfluorodecanoic acid, perfluorododecanoic acid, perfluorooctane sulfonate, and 8:2 fluorotelomer alcohol) and four formulations of the PFCs mixtures. Mixtures as well as individual compounds consistently regulated a particular gene set, which suggests that these conserved genes may play a central role in the toxicity mediated by PFCs. Specifically, a number of genes regulated by the mixtures were identified in this study, which were not affected by exposure to any single component. These genes are implicated in multiple biological functions and processes, including fatty acid metabolism and transport, xenobiotic metabolism, immune responses, and oxidative stress. More than 80% of the altered genes in the PFOA- and PFOS-dominant mixture groups were of the same gene set, while the gene expression profiles from single PFOA and PFOS exposures were not as similar. This work contributes to the development of toxicogenomic approaches in combined toxicity assessment and allows for comprehensive insights into the combined action of PFCs mixtures in multiple environmental matrices.

Despite global occurrence of several perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) the potential ecological effects of such substances on natural populations are not known. In endangered lesser black-backed gulls (Larus fuscus fuscus) on the Norwegian Coast, the blood concentrations of PFCs were as high as legacy organochlorines (OCs), and here we examined whether PFCs show associations similar to those of OCs to factors potentially affecting population growth, by evaluating relationships between contaminant concentrations and demographic parameters (reproductive performance and the probability of adults returning between breeding seasons). PFCs were not adversely associated with demographic parameters, while the most persistent OCs; notably PCB and p,p'-DDE, were adversely associated with early chick survival, and adult return rate. This study thus suggests that when the concentrations of PFCs and OCs are of similar magnitude in a gull population, OCs are more likely to cause adverse ecological effects.

Purpose: Current topics in fluorine research are presented with emphasis on findings by researchers in Szczecin and Poland, as well as in the world. Reports are cited on the distribution of fluorine compounds in the environment, routes of penetration into living organisms, and analytical methods for the quantitative determinations of fluorine content in air, water, soil, and foods. Important contributions have been made by Polish researchers on the role and patterns of fluorides in body fluids, soft and hard tissues, which remain in direct relationship to accumulation and elimination of fluorine. So far, comprehensive studies on mutagenic effects of fluorine and its potential role in bone neoplasms, Down syndrome, and other genetic disorders have not been carried out in Poland. Worthy of mention are reports on mechanisms of action of fluorine compounds on the cellular and subcellular level., Conclusions: Finally, two achievements of recent years in the field of fluorine research are discussed briefly. The first is concerned with the use in dentistry of chemical analysis for studying mineral reconstruction of teeth throughout the lifetime of an individual. The second is in the field of medicine where molecular modeling has been applied to explain the mechanism of action of aluminofluoride complexes (AlFx) as a messenger of false information during protein biosynthesis and their apparent role in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease.

Hydrofluoropolyethers (HFPE) are a family of linear oligomeric fluorinated fluids comprising a chain of difluoromethoxy and tetrafluoroethoxy repeating units with terminal OCF2H end groups, each of which contains an isolated hydrogen atom. These fluids have been designed as low environmental impact substitutes for perfluorinated organic substances in a number of applications including heat transfer and fire suppression agents, and as a solvent. The toxicological profile of these new fluids has been evaluated and is presented in this paper. Acute toxicity tests have been performed on Sprague-Dawley Crl: CD (SD) BR rats using oral, dermal, and inhalation routes. No deaths were recorded even at the highest tested concentrations, and the resultant LD50/LC50 values were >5000 mg/kg (oral), >2000 mg/kg (dermal), and >26,411 ppm (inhalation: reversible anaesthetic effects, e.g., lethargy, seen at this exposure concentration). Other short-term tests (skin and eye irritation, skin sensitisation, genotoxicity tests in vitro and in vivo, cardiac sensitisation) were also performed, and no hazardous properties were identified. Effects of repeated exposure by inhalation were examined in rats over test periods of 5, 14, 28, and 90 days. Effects on embryo-foetal development in the rat have also been studied. The 28-day, 90-day and developmental studies were performed using nominal HFPE concentrations of 1000, 3300, and 10,000 ppm (6h/day: actual exposures confirmed by test atmosphere analysis), and the highest tested concentration proved to be an NOAEL in each study. Major observed effects were elevated urinary (inorganic) fluoride levels and increased liver weights with centrilobular hepatocyte hypertrophy (considered an adaptive response, linked to hepatic metabolism of absorbed material).

High-performance liquid chromatography/inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC/ICPMS) provided a rapid and specific means for profiling the iodine-containing metabolites produced by the earthworm Eisenia veneta following exposure to 2-fluoro-4-iodoaniline. Profiles were obtained, using gradient reversed-phase HPLC, from extracts of whole earthworms and from coleomic fluid with as little as 25 ng/peak of iodine detected. The use of ICPMS in this way provides a convenient means of determining the metabolic fate of iodinated compounds without the need for radiolabelled compounds., (Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Some 16 nitroquinolines (NQs) and their fluorinated derivatives were tested for mutagenicity in Salmonella typhimurium TA100 without S9 mix to investigate the effect of fluorine-substitution on the mutagenicity. These NQs consist of 5-NQs, 5-nitroquinoline N-oxides (5-NQOs), N-methyl-5-nitroquinolinium methanesulfonates (N-Me-5-NQs) and 8-NQs, including three ortho-F-NQs, one meta-F-NQ, four para-F-NQs and four 3-F-NQs. For this purpose, eight F-NQs were newly synthesized. The data indicated that the ratio of the mutagenic activities (revertants/plate/nmol) of fluorinated NQs to those of the corresponding parent non-fluorinated compounds ranged from 0.6- to 119-fold. The fluorine atom located para to the nitro group markedly enhanced the mutagenicity (24-fold and more), while three ortho-fluorinated derivatives showed no significant increase in mutagenicity (enhancement ratio were 0.6, 0.8 and 1.7). With respect to 8-NQs, its meta-fluorinated derivative also had an enhanced mutagenicity over the parent compound (53-fold). In addition, although N-Me-5-NQ was less mutagenic than 5-NQ and 5-NQO, the mutagenicity of N-Me-5-NQ was most significantly enhanced by fluorine-substitution. These results suggest that introduction of a fluorine atom to the molecule in question may be a useful tool to modify their mutagenic potency and to better understand the mechanism of mutation., (Copyright 1999 Elsevier Science B.V.)

Methyl eugenol, is a commercially used fruit fly attractant and a suspected carcinogen. Several phenylpropenes, including methyl eugenol and the known carcinogen safrole, score negative in the Salmonella assay but score positive in the yeast DEL assay that selects for intrachromosomal recombination events in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In an attempt to dissociate the beneficial properties of methyl eugenol from its genotoxic properties, saturated or fluorinated analogs were evaluated for their ability to induce intrachromosomal (DEL) recombination in yeast. Field tests have previously shown that all of the analogs used have appreciable properties as fruit fly attractants. The analogs 1,2-dimethoxy-4-ethylbenzene, 1,2-dimethoxy-4-(2-fluoro-2-propenyl)benzene, 1,2-dimethoxy-4-(2-fluoroethyl)benzene and 1,2-dimethoxy-4-(3-fluoro-2-propenyl)benzene all showed reduced toxicity and reduced recombinagenicity in yeast compared to methyl eugenol. These results confirm the validity of fluorination and/or removal of the 2-propenyl moiety in reducing the toxicity and recombinagenicity of methyl eugenol derivatives.

As part of a study on fluorination--toxicity relationships for aminoglycoside antibiotics, 5,3'-dideoxy-5-epifluorokanamycin B (10), 5,3',4'-trideoxy-5-epifluorokanamycin B (11), 1-N-[(S)-4-amino-2-hydroxybutanoyl]-5-deoxy-5-epifluorotobramyc in (19), 5-deoxy-5-epifluoroarbekacin (20), and 5-deoxy-5-epifluoroamikacin (21) have been prepared. The acute toxicities of these three 5-deoxy-5-epifluoro compounds showed values almost identical or similar to those for arbekacin (ABK) and amikacin (15), making a sharp contrast with the toxicities of the corresponding 5-deoxy-5-fluoro derivatives. This fact is explained on the basis of basicity changes (retention for the 5-epifluoro derivatives and reduction for the 5-fluoro derivatives) at the H2N-3 groups of the fluorinated compounds compared to the parent compounds; this hypothesis was substantiated by the pKa values at the H3N(+)-1, 3 groups (determined by the shift changes depending on pD values at C-2 and C-4, 6 in their 13C NMR spectra) of 2,5-dideoxy-5-epifluorostreptamine (23) and 2,5-dideoxy-5-fluorostreptamine (24), chosen as model compounds, and 2-deoxystreptamine (DST).