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Malaria is increasingly diagnosed in urban centers across the Amazon Basin. In this study, we combined repeated prevalence surveys over a 4-year period of a household-based random sample of 2,774 persons with parasite genotyping to investigate the epidemiology of malaria in Mâncio Lima, the main urban transmission hotspot in Amazonian Brazil. We found that most malarial infections were asymptomatic and undetected by point-of-care microscopy. Our findings indicate that as malaria transmission decreases, the detection threshold of microscopy rises, resulting in more missed infections despite similar parasite densities estimated by molecular methods. We identified genetically highly diverse populations of Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum in the region; occasional shared lineages between urban and rural residents suggest cross-boundary propagation. The prevalence of lowdensity and asymptomatic infections poses a significant challenge for routine surveillance and the effectiveness of malaria control and elimination strategies in urbanized areas with readily accessible laboratory facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Malarial infections are often missed by microscopy, and most parasite carriers are asymptomatic in low-endemicity settings. Whether parasite detectability and its ability to elicit symptoms change as transmission declines remains unclear. Methods We performed a prospective panel survey with repeated measurements on the same participants over 12 months to investigate whether Plasmodium vivax detectability by microscopy and risk of symptoms upon infection varied during a community-wide larviciding intervention in the Amazon basin of Brazil that markedly reduced vector density. We screened 1096 to 1400 residents in the intervention site for malaria by microscopy and quantitative TaqMan assays at baseline and twice during intervention. Results We found that more P vivax infections than expected from their parasite densities measured by TaqMan assays were missed by microscopy as transmission decreased. At lower transmission, study participants appeared to tolerate higher P vivax loads without developing symptoms. We hypothesize that changes in the ratio between circulating parasites and those that accumulate in the bone marrow and spleen, by avoiding peripheral blood microscopy detection, account for decreased parasite detectability and lower risk of symptoms under low transmission. Conclusions P vivax infections are more likely to be subpatent and remain asymptomatic as malaria transmission decreases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]