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This study investigates the biomechanical adaptations of the longitudinal arch (LA) in long-distance runners, focusing on changes in stiffness, angle, and moment during a 60-minute run. Twenty runners participated in this experiment, and were asked to run at a speed of 2.7 m·s-1 for 60 minutes. The kinematic and kinetic data collected at five-minute intervals during running were calculated, including the stiffness of LA in the loading phase (kload) and the stiffness of LA in the unloading phase (kunload), the maximum LA moment (Mmax), the range of LA angle change (∆θrange), and the maximum LA angle change (∆θmax). Foot morphology was also scanned before and after running. Variations of kinematic and kinetic data were analyzed throughout the running activity, as well as variations of foot morphology pre- and post-run. Results showed that there was a significant decrease in kload (p<0.001), coupled with increases in ∆θrange (p=0.002) and ∆θmax (p<0.001), during the first 15 minutes of running, which was followed by a period of mechanical stability. No differences were found in kunload and Mmax throughout the running process and the foot morphology remained unchanged after running. These results highlight a critical adaptation phase that may be pivotal for improving running economy and performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Physiological changes in the foot may be influenced by external factors such as shoe types or demographic parameters, leading to podiatric conditions in adulthood. The aim of this study was to assess the changes in morphological measurements of the feet of boys and girls during childhood and adolescence. Methods: A total of 1678 Ecuadorian children aged 8 to 17 years participated in the study. The length, width, and height of the foot were analyzed using a 3D scanner to obtain the arch height ratio for the diagnosis of pediatric flat foot. Results: Statistical differences were observed for lengths, widths, and perimeters of the foot in boys aged 5 to 15–16 years and girls aged 5 to 12–13 years. Differences in the height of the navicular bone were found in all age groups, with changes from 2.8 to 4.1% in boys and from 1.3 to 1.5% in girls. The greatest differences between boys and girls of the same age were found at 14 years old onwards. The highest prevalence of flat foot was found in 8-year-old girls (64.9%) and in 12-year-old boys (82.5%). Conclusions: The feet of Ecuadorian children develop progressively during childhood and adolescence. Boys presented with longer and wider feet than girls of the same age. The highest prevalence of flat foot was found in 12-year-old boys and 8-year-old girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Clinicians employ foot morphology assessment to evaluate the functionality of the method and anticipate possible injuries. This study aims to correlate static foot posture and the dynamic barefoot evaluation in a sample of healthy adult participants. Methods. The foot posture was evaluated using the Foot Posture Index-6 (FPI-6) and the dynamics were evaluated through baropodometric examination. Two operators independently assessed the participants' foot posture through FPI-6, and then a dynamic evaluation was performed by asking them to walk 8 times across a platform. One hundred participants (mean age: 32.15 ± 7.49) were enrolled. Results. The inter-rater agreement between the two assessors was found to be excellent. The majority of the feet belonged to the 0 < FPI < 4 class (32%), followed by the 4 < FPI < 8 (31%) and the FPI > 8 ranges (19.5%). Our "area of contact" analysis showed a significant poor correlation between FPI and total foot, midfoot, and the second metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) (−0.3 < r < 0). Regarding "force" parameters, the analysis showed a poor correlation between the midfoot, hallux, and the second toe (−0.2 < r < 2); finally the "pressure" analysis showed a poor correlation between FPI, the fourth MTPJ, and the second toe (−0.2 < rs < 0.3) and a moderate correlation between the hallux (r = 0.374) and the fifth MTPJ (r = 0.427). Conclusions. This study emphasizes the constrained correlation between static foot posture observation and dynamic barefoot examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between flatfoot morphology and body mass and height in children aged 6–12 years. A total of 6471 Chinese children (mean age 9.0 ± 1.9 years, 41% female) were assessed for foot morphometry, body height, and body mass index. Foot morphology, including foot length, width, girth, arch height, hallux valgus angle, and rearfoot valgus angle, was measured using a 3D laser scanner. Flatfoot evaluations were conducted using the Sztriter–Godunov index (KY) from footprints. All measurements were analyzed by age and sex using the mean values of the left and right sides. Comparisons were performed between flatfoot groups, between body mass index (BMI) groups, and between body height groups. The study revealed a significant decrease in the incidence of bipedal flatfoot with age (p < 0.001), whereas the prevalence of obesity remained consistent (p > 0.05). Bipedal flatfoot was associated with distinct morphological changes, including lower arches, reduced instep height, diminished ankle heights and a greater rearfoot valgus angle (p < 0.05). When comparing the BMI groups, overweight children had larger and thicker feet (p < 0.05), but no differences were found in arch height and ankle height (p > 0.05). When comparing the body height groups, short-statured children had a shorter feet girth, shorter arches, and shorter ankle height (p < 0.05), but no differences were found in the rearfoot valgus angle (p > 0.05). Conclusion: The main characteristics of flat feet include lower arches and instep heights and ankle heights but higher rearfoot valgus angles. In general, overweight children's feet do not have the common features of flat feet. In contrast, short children had similar features of flatfoot except for rearfoot valgus. Assessment of posture, such as rearfoot valgus, can be critical in identifying children with flat feet. What is Known: • The morphology of children's feet is associated with body growth, but the relationship between flatfeet and body mass and height remains controversial. What is New: • Three-dimensional foot measurement shows that body mass is generally not associated with flatfeet, while short children have lower arches but no rearfoot valgus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the effects of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) with gastrocnemius (GCM) strength exercise on foot morphology in patients with stroke. Herein, 31 patients with chronic stroke meeting the study criteria were enrolled and divided into two groups; 16 patients were randomized to the gastrocnemius neuromuscular electrical stimulation (GCMNMES) group, and 15 patients to the conventional neuromuscular electrical stimulation (CNMES) group. The GCMNMES group conducted GCM-strengthening exercise with NMES. CNMES group conducted NMES at paretic tibialis anterior muscle with ankle dorsiflexion movement. These patients underwent therapeutic interventions lasting 30 min/session, five times a week for 4 weeks. To analyze changes in foot morphology, 3D foot scanning was used, while a foot-pressure measurement device was used to evaluate foot pressure and weight-bearing area. In an intra-group comparison of 3D-foot-scanning results, the experimental group showed significant changes in longitudinal arch angle (p < 0.05), medial longitudinal arch angle (MLAA) (p < 0.01), transverse arch angle (TAA) (p < 0.01), rearfoot angle (RA) (p < 0.05), foot length (FL) (p < 0.05), foot width (FW) (p < 0.05), and arch height index (AHI) (p < 0.01) of the paretic side and in TAA (p < 0.05) and AHI (p < 0.05) of the non-paretic side. The CNMES group showed significant changes in TAA (p < 0.05) and FW (p < 0.05) of the paretic side and TAA (p < 0.05) and AHI (p < 0.05) of the non-paretic side. An inter-group comparison showed significant differences in MLAA (p < 0.05) and RA (p < 0.05) of the paretic side. In an intra-group comparison of foot pressure assessment, the experimental group showed significant differences in footprint area (FPA) (p < 0.05) of the paretic side and FPA symmetry (p < 0.05). The CNMES group showed a significant difference in only FPA symmetry (p < 0.05). An inter-group comparison showed no significant difference between the two groups (p < 0.05). Thus, NMES with GCM-strengthening exercises yielded positive effects on foot morphology in patients with stroke. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Study Aim. Foot posture is an important determinant of a basketball player's performance. It influences their ability to generate power, maintain balance, and absorb shock. The aim of the current study was therefore to examine the association between foot posture and landing error score in recreational basketball players. Material and Methods. A cross-sectional study design was adopted. Fifty recreational basketball players from selected basketball clubs were chosen for the study. Their Foot Posture Index (FPI) and Landing Error Scores (LESS) were assessed. Nonparametric statistics, such as chi-square tests and the Mann-Whitney U test, were employed to examine the relationship between selected demographic variables and FPI and LESS scores. Additionally, assessed the difference in foot posture between the dominant and non-dominant legs. p-value less than 0.05 was considered significant. Results. Most participants exhibited normal foot posture, with no significant differences between the dominant and non-dominant legs, as assessed by FPI (p < 0.05). Additionally, an association was found between FPI and LESS scores, with 44% of participants showing a propensity for landing errors. The analysis revealed that a notable number of participants were categorized as 'poor' in LESS even with normal foot posture. This implies that landing errors are not only influenced by foot posture. Conclusions. There is an association between foot posture and the occurrence of landing errors in basketball players. This study emphasizes the need to thoroughly examine basketball players' FPI. It also underscores the importance of developing strategies aimed at helping them maintain optimal foot posture. These strategies can assist in avoiding landing errors, reducing the risk of injury, and promoting good health and well-being.

This study was conducted to investigate the relationship between the morphological structure of the foot and female athletes’ static balance levels. 51 female athletes with an average age of 22.25±0.38 years participated in the research. The foot morphology was evaluated in 4 parameters. Balance scores were evaluated in 8 parameters. Spearman and Pearson correlation tests were used to determine the relationship between parameters (p lt;05). According to the results, it was observed that in the right foot there was a negative significant correlation between foot index (FI) parameter and standard deviation of forward and backward sway (FBSD), average forward backward speed (AFBS), used perimeter (P), used area (A) balance scores. In the left foot, there was a positive correlation between the FI parameter and the pressure to the average central y axis (COPY) balance score, and a negative significant relationship between the FI parameter and the FBSD and AFBS balance scores. It was determined that there was a positive significant correlation between the Chippaux Smirak index (CSI) and Staheli index (SI) parameters of both feet and the pressure to the average central x point (COPX) balance score. The results can be interpreted that the anatomical structure of the foot is important in the static balance characteristics of athletes.

The morphology of the human foot varies considerably due to the combined effects of heredity, culture, lifestyle, nutrition and climatic factors, and these have anthropological, clinical and forensic importance. The shape of the foot has been of great interest to numerous authors because of its variability and its importance from both the morphological and functional points of view. Foot morphology determines the size and shape of feet or footprints and thereby makes them unique data to establish human identity. This review study is an attempt to explore the variation in human foot morphology in different ethnic populations as well as the effect of age, sex and obesity on the morphology of the human foot. The database was searched from June 2021 to December 2021 using Google Scholar, ResearchGate and PubMed employing unique and specific combinations of keywords, such as ethnic differences, foot anthropometry, foot dimensions, foot morphology, footprints, gender differences in foot dimension, sexual dimorphism in foot anthropometry, foot shape, obesity and foot morphology, and the effect of age on foot morphology. A total of 55 studies were retrieved covering the years from 1975 to 2020. Literature revealed that foot morphological characteristics vary among different ethnic groups and also exhibit sexual dimorphism and reflect specific characteristics at different ages of life. Obesity was found to have a significant impact on selected foot morphological parameters. Studies on quantitative variations in foot morphology from the anthropological point of view in the Indian context are limited, and, therefore, similar studies should be instigated among different ethnic groups living in different parts of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human foot is a complex structure that plays an important role in our capacity for upright locomotion. Comparisons of our feet with those of our closest extinct and extant relatives have linked shape features (e.g. the longitudinal and transverse arches, heel size and toe length) to specific mechanical functions. However, foot shape varies widely across the human population, so it remains unclear if and how specific shape variants are related to locomotor mechanics. Here we constructed a statistical shape–function model (SFM) from 100 healthy participants to directly explore the relationship between the shape and function of our feet. We also examined if we could predict the joint motion and moments occurring within a person's foot during locomotion based purely on shape features. The SFM revealed that the longitudinal and transverse arches, relative foot proportions and toe shape along with their associated joint mechanics were most variable. However, each of these only accounted for small proportions of the overall variation in shape, deformation and joint mechanics, most likely owing to the high structural complexity of the foot. Nevertheless, a leave-one-out analysis showed that the SFM can accurately predict joint mechanics of a novel foot, based on its shape and deformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Foot morphology is associated with altered loading of the ankle–foot complex in adolescent footballers, predisposing to pain and injury. However, usual singular plane clinical assessments do not accurately capture the 3D nature of foot morphology. A new approach is 3D laser scanning, with statistical shape model techniques creating individual-to-group comparison. However, no research exists on the adolescent, football-playing foot. Furthermore, a link between 3D foot morphology, and usual clinical and performance measures would be beneficial for practical implementation. Methods: Four hundred forty-seven 3D foot scans from 224 elite male footballers (U12-U19) in bilateral stance were collected and further processed with statistical shape model techniques. Weighted shape parameters for individual principal components (Modes) were extracted for each foot. Centre of pressure displacement expressed as total travelled way in millimetres was calculated for bilateral and unilateral postural stability measures. Clinical assessments (Clarke's Angle, Resting Calcaneal Stance Position) were calculated on the 3D foot scans. Differences in weighted shape parameters, postural stability measures, and clinical assessments between age groups were determined by ANOVA. Correlations determined the relationship of Modes and clinical assessments to postural stability measures. Linear regression established if clinical assessments predicted the mode describing foot arch variation. Results: Age groups significantly differed for Mode 1 (foot length), Mode 2 (foot arch), and Mode 5 (tibial rotation relative to the foot) (p < 0.05). Resting Calcaneal Stance Position (r =.663) and Clarke's Angle (r = -.445) were low-to-moderately correlated to Mode 2 (both p < 0.001), and linear regression found they were both significant predictors of Mode 2, though only moderately (R2 =.522). There were low correlations of foot morphology to the postural stability tests. Conclusion: This is the first study to describe the 3D foot morphology of male football-playing adolescents, and discover the differences between age groups. This will improve understanding and assessment of foot morphology in male adolescents because 2D techniques, as discovered in this study, do not strongly correlate to, nor predict, the 3D foot arch. Foot morphology was only lowly correlated to postural stability, thus a multifaceted program would be required for improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Physiological changes in the foot may be influenced by external factors such as shoe types or demographic parameters, leading to podiatric conditions in adulthood. The aim of this study was to assess the changes in morphological measurements of the feet of boys and girls during childhood and adolescence. Methods: A total of 1678 Ecuadorian children aged 8 to 17 years participated in the study. The length, width, and height of the foot were analyzed using a 3D scanner to obtain the arch height ratio for the diagnosis of pediatric flat foot. Results: Statistical differences were observed for lengths, widths, and perimeters of the foot in boys aged 5 to 15–16 years and girls aged 5 to 12–13 years. Differences in the height of the navicular bone were found in all age groups, with changes from 2.8 to 4.1% in boys and from 1.3 to 1.5% in girls. The greatest differences between boys and girls of the same age were found at 14 years old onwards. The highest prevalence of flat foot was found in 8-year-old girls (64.9%) and in 12-year-old boys (82.5%). Conclusions: The feet of Ecuadorian children develop progressively during childhood and adolescence. Boys presented with longer and wider feet than girls of the same age. The highest prevalence of flat foot was found in 12-year-old boys and 8-year-old girls.

Abstract Background Hallux valgus is a foot deformity that may affect gait, thus increasing the risk of falls among older people. We investigated the relationship between foot morphology, muscle strength, and physical performance. Methods In this study, community-dwelling older people aged ≥65 years were included. A three-dimensional footprint automatic measurement apparatus was used to measure the hallux valgus angle, arch height ratio, and heel-floor angle. Furthermore, the toe flexor strength and ankle plantar flexion strength were measured. Physical performance tests included the five-repetition sit-to-stand test, one-leg standing time, maximal step length, functional reach test, and 5-m fastest walking time (walking time). The relationship between the hallux valgus angle and foot morphology and muscle strength was examined. In addition, factors affecting physical performance testing were assessed. Two-group comparisons, correlation, and multiple comparisons were used for statistical analyses. Results Of the 133 women (age 77.7 ± 6.2 years), 57 had hallux valgus and 76 had no hallux valgus. There was a significant difference in the arch height ratio and heel-floor angle between women with and without hallux valgus (p

Background: Foot malalignment can augment the risk of lower-extremity injuries and lead to musculoskeletal disorders. This study aimed to clarify the contribution of rearfoot alignment to plantar pressure distribution and spatiotemporal parameters during gait in healthy adolescent athletes. Methods: This retrospective study included 39 adolescent athletes who were divided into the rearfoot eversion and control groups according to a leg heel angle of 7°. A total of 78 legs were analyzed (45 and 33 legs in the rearfoot eversion [women, 53.3%] and control groups [women, 48.5%], respectively). Gait was assessed using an in-shoe plantar pressure measuring system and a wearable inertial sensor. Results: The foot plantar pressure distribution in the hallux was higher in the rearfoot eversion group than that in the control group (p = 0.034). Spatiotemporal parameters showed that the foot pitch angle at heel strike was significantly larger in the rearfoot eversion group than that in the control group (24.5° vs. 21.7°; p = 0.015). Total sagittal range of motion of the ankle during the stance phase of gait was significantly larger in the rearfoot eversion group than that in the control group (102.5 ± 7.1° vs. 95.6 ± 15.8°; p = 0.020). Logistic regression analysis revealed that plantar pressure at the hallux and medial heel and foot pitch angle at heel strike were significantly associated with rearfoot eversion. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that rearfoot eversion affects the gait patterns of adolescent athletes. Notably, leg heel angle assessment, which is a simple and quick procedure, should be considered as an alternative screening tool for estimating plantar pressure and spatiotemporal gait parameters to prevent sports-related and overuse injuries in adolescent athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to investigate the relationship of morphological structure of foot, and ankle flexibility to foot and ankle disorders in folk dancers. 42 dancers participated in the study. The morphological structures of feet were determined by using footprint analysis method with 4 parameters and ankle flexibility properties were determined by using 4 parameters. Expanded nordic musculoskeletal questionnaire was used to determine foot and ankle disorders. The data were evaluated with Spearman Correlation and Man-Whitney U tests at p <0.05 significance level. When the foot and ankle parameters of unhealthy and healthy volunteers were compared, a statistically significant difference was found between the two groups in the ChippauxSmirak index (CSI), Staheli index (SI) and dorsiflexion (DF°) values in the right foot, and in the CSI and SI values in the left foot. When the relationship of foot and ankle parameters to pain severity and pain frequency in unhealthy volunteers was examined, it was observed that there was a negative correlation between DF° and eversion (E°) values and pain frequency, and between DF°, PF° and E° values and pain severity in the right foot. In the left foot, a negative correlation was found between the DF° values and the frequency of pain. (p<0,05). In this study, some components of the foot morphological structure and ankle flexibility properties were found to have a relationship with foot and ankle disorders. These results can be taken into account in the determination of risk factors and preventive measures in terms of pain, injury and various disorders in the foot and ankle region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to investigate the relationship between the morphological structure of the foot and female athletes' static balance levels. 51 female athletes with an average age of 22.25±0.38 years participated in the research. The foot morphology was evaluated in 4 parameters. Balance scores were evaluated in 8 parameters. Spearman and Pearson correlation tests were used to determine the relationship between parameters (p<05). According to the results, it was observed that in the right foot there was a negative significant correlation between foot index (FI) parameter and standard deviation of forward and backward sway (FBSD), average forward backward speed (AFBS), used perimeter (P), used area (A) balance scores. In the left foot, there was a positive correlation between the FI parameter and the pressure to the average central y axis (COPY) balance score, and a negative significant relationship between the FI parameter and the FBSD and AFBS balance scores. It was determined that there was a positive significant correlation between the Chippaux Smirak index (CSI) and Staheli index (SI) parameters of both feet and the pressure to the average central x point (COPX) balance score. The results can be interpreted that the anatomical structure of the foot is important in the static balance characteristics of athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provided a comprehensive updated review of the biological aspects of children foot morphology across different ages, sex, and weight, aiming to reveal the patterns of normal and pathological changes in children feet during growth and development. This review article comprised 25 papers in total that satisfied the screening standards. The aim was to investigate how weight changes, age and sex affect foot type, and gain a deeper understanding of the prevalent foot deformities that occur during children growth. Three different foot morphological conditions were discussed, specifically including the effect of sex and age differences, the effect of weight changes, and abnormal foot morphologies commonly documented during growth. This review found that sex, age, and weight changes would affect foot size, bony structure, foot posture, and plantar pressures during child growth. As a result of this biological nature, the children’s feet generally exhibit neutral and internally rotated foot postures, which frequently lead to abnormal foot morphologies (e.g., flat foot, pronated foot, etc.). In the future, attention shall be paid to the causal factors leading to specific foot morphologies during the growth and development of children. However, sufficient evidence could not be provided due to a relatively short period of investigation and non-uniformed research methodology in the current literature. A more comprehensive and in-depth exploration is recommended to provide scientific evidence for the discovery of children foot development and personalized growth pattern.

Static measurements are clinically useful in characterising foot morphology, but it remains unclear to what extent it can influence dynamic lower limb performance. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate if foot posture or foot morphology deformation relates to ankle plantarflexion isokinetic strength and specific kinetics variables during jumping using principal component analysis (PCA). Thirty-eight physically active participants performed drop vertical jump (DVJ) onto force platforms and ankle plantarflexion contractions in different modalities on an isokinetic dynamometer. Foot posture was assessed using the Foot Posture Index–6 item, whereas foot one-, two- and three-dimensional morphological deformation was calculated using the Arch Height Index Measurement System. A PCA was applied to the ankle plantarflexion and kinetics performance data and correlations between PCs and foot parameters measured. The analysis revealed 3 PCs within the ankle plantarflexion and DVJ kinetics variables that captured more than 80% of the variability within the data, but none of them showed significant correlations (r ≤ 0.27) with any foot variables. While foot posture and foot morphological deformation remain of interest in characterising foot morphology across individuals, these findings highlight the lack of clinical relevance of these static evaluations at characterising lower limb and ankle performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Une prévalence élevée de troubles au pied rapportés chez les marcheurs de longue distance a été observée. Or, aucune documentation ne semble décrire comment se manifeste l'adaptation du pied à un volume soutenu de marche dans le temps. Le but de l'étude est de quantifier les modulations morpho-fonctionnelles du pied peu de jours après une période de marche au long cours. L'étude recense aussi les effets différenciés reliés au sexe, à la latéralité du membre inférieur (dominant vs non dominant) et à l'ampleur du trajet pédestre. Les données de 38 marcheurs-pèlerins (âge : 63,2 ± 7,8 ans ; 57,9 % de femmes ; IMC : 25,7 ± 3,8 kg/m2) ont été recueillies lors de trois collectes en laboratoire (C 1 , C 2 , C 3), intercalées d'une période de marche au long cours. La collecte initiale C 1 avait lieu à l'intérieur des 30 jours avant la marche. La collecte C 2 , tenue 5 à 10 jours après C 1 , servait à quantifier le changement minimal détectable (CMD) pour chaque variable dépendante. La collecte C 3 (de suivi) prenait place au maximum 10 jours après la marche. Quatre types de regroupement ont été formés selon les trajets pédestres réalisés : cohorte au long cours (parcours ≥ 250 km) [LC, n = 31], groupes court trajet (parcours de 200 à 450 km) [CT, n = 15], moyen trajet (parcours de 450 à 900 km) [MT, n = 10] et long trajet (parcours ≥ 900 km) [LT, n = 8]. L'étude de la cohorte LC sert à cibler les effets spécifiques au contexte de marche, la comparaison des groupes CT, MT, LT permet d'en dégager les effets associés au cumul de marche. Les analyses de variance traitent séparément les facteurs sexe et latéralité. Pour la cohorte LC, l'éventuelle différence significative (p ≤ 0,05) entre C 1 et C 3 doit aussi être confirmée par un changement moyen de la mesure qui soit d'une ampleur supérieure au seuil critique (valeur du CMD.n) pour que le changement soit considéré réel. Sept variables dépendantes sont testées : la longueur du pied et du pied tronqué, la largeur du pied aux têtes métatarsiennes, l'indice MVI, la hauteur du naviculaire et du dos du pied, et le ratio AHI. Une diminution significative de la longueur du pied (−0,8 ± 1,9 mm ; −0,34 % ; CMD.n = 0,7 mm) du côté du membre inférieur dominant (F 1,29 = 4,95 ; p = 0,034) a été observée entre C 1 et C 3 pour la cohorte LC. Dans la même cohorte, un effet d'interaction significatif a été noté pour la largeur du pied (F 1,29 = 4,64 ; p = 0,040) : chez l'homme, une augmentation significative (+1,4 ± 1,6 mm ; +1,35 % ; CMD.n = 0,7 mm) de C 1 à C 3 est observée, alors qu'une tendance opposée apparaît chez la femme. Ces effets sont considérés de réels changements induits par la marche, leur ampleur se chiffrant au-dessus des seuils critiques calculés. Les analyses considérant les groupes CT, MT, LT ne révèlent aucun effet relatif à l'ampleur des trajets pédestres. Cette étude montre que quelques dimensions morpho-fonctionnelles du pied sont finement impactées par la marche au long cours considérant les volumes de pratique rapportés. Les résultats mettent en lumière que le sexe et la dominance du membre inférieur sont à considérer pour décrire avec justesse les modulations au pied induites par la marche de longue durée. D'autres études sont indiquées pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes pathogéniques des troubles au pied rapportés par les marcheurs au long cours. A high prevalence of foot disorders reported in long-distance walkers has been observed. However, we found no documentation on how the foot adapts to a sustained walking volume over time. The aim of the study was to quantify the morpho-functional modulations of the foot shortly after a period of long-term walking. The study also investigates differential effects related to gender, lower limb laterality (dominant vs. non-dominant), and to the extent of the pedestrian path covered. Data from 38 pilgrim-walkers (age: 63.2 ± 7.8 years; 57.9% women; BMI: 25.7 ± 3.8 kg/m2) were collected during three lab data collection (C 1 , C 2 , C 3), interspersed with a long-term walk. The baseline data collection C 1 took place within 30 days before the walk. The C 2 data collection, held 5-10 days after C 1 , was used to quantify the minimum detectable change (MDC) for each dependent variable. The C 3 (follow-up) data collection took place up to 10 days after the walk. Four groups were formed based on the extent of the pedestrian routes covered: long-term cohort (path ≥ 250 km) [LT, n = 31], short-path group (path from 200 to 450 km) [SP, n = 15], medium-path group (path from 450 to 900 km) [MP, n = 10] and long-path group (path ≥ 900 km) [LP, n = 8]. Studying the LC cohort serves to target the effects specific to the walking context, while comparing groups SP, MP, LP allows the cumulative effects to be identified. Analyses of variance treat the factors gender and laterality separately. For the LC cohort, a possible of significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) between C 1 and C 3 must also be ratified by an average change in the measure that is greater than the critical threshold (MDC.n value) for the change to be considered real. Seven dependent variables are tested: foot length and truncated foot length, foot width at the metatarsal heads, MVI index, navicular height, dorsum of foot height and AHI ratio. A significant decrease in foot length (−0.8 ± 1.9 mm; −0.34% MDC.n = 0.7 mm) on the side of the dominant lower limb (F 1.29 = 4.95; P = 0.034) was observed between C 1 and C 3 for the LC cohort. In the same cohort, a significant interaction effect was noted for foot width (F 1.29 = 4.64; P = 0.040): in men, a significant increase (+1.4 ± 1.6 mm; +1.35%; MDC.n = 0.7 mm) from C 1 to C 3 is observed while a reverse trend appears in woman. These effects are considered real changes induced by walking: their magnitude being above the calculated critical thresholds. Analyses considering the SP, MP, LP groups showed no effect relative to the extent of the pedestrian routes covered. The changes observed in this study show that some morpho-functional dimensions of the foot are finely impacted by long-term walking considering the reported volumes of practice. Results highlight that the walker's gender and lower limb dominance should be considered to accurately describe the foot modulations induced by long-term walking. Further studies are indicated to better understand the pathogenic mechanisms of foot disorders reported by long-term walkers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of this study were as follows: (1) to assess how foot posture and morphology assessments change according to body mass index (BMI) status; (2) to determine which body composition parameter (BMI or waist circumference) correlates better with the foot posture index (FPI), arch height index (AHI), and midfoot width (MFW) in children. Foot morphometry (FPI, AHI, and MFW) and body composition (BMI and waist circumference (WC)) were assessed in a cross-sectional study of 575 children (mean age = 7.42 ± 1.67 years; 53.27% female). When comparing BMI groups, an increase of 8.3% in AHI and 13.6% in MFW (both p < 0.0001) was seen. In linear regression analyses, BMI and WC were positively associated with MFW explaining together 64.8% of its variance. Noteworthy, MFW is the most related to body composition parameters. Conclusion: Foot morphology assessed by FPI, AHI, and MFW differs among BMI categories in children. Noteworthy, WC correlates better with foot measures than does the more commonly used BMI, and more importantly the MFW is the foot measure best explained by children's body weight. Since foot morphometry is different among different BMI groups, children would benefit from shoes with different patterns (thinner and wider), as well as a good system to adjust midfoot height. What is Known: • Children who are overweight and obese have flatter feet, when assessed using footprints. • Up to 72% of people have incorrectly fitted shoes. What is New: • Children with underweight have thinner and flatter feet than children with normal weight, while children with overweight and obesity have wider and higher arched feet. • Body weight is related to foot shape, which has relevance for footwear manufacturers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hallux valgus is a foot deformity that may affect gait, thus increasing the risk of falls among older people. We investigated the relationship between foot morphology, muscle strength, and physical performance.Methods: In this study, community-dwelling older people aged ≥65 years were included. A three-dimensional footprint automatic measurement apparatus was used to measure the hallux valgus angle, arch height ratio, and heel-floor angle. Furthermore, the toe flexor strength and ankle plantar flexion strength were measured. Physical performance tests included the five-repetition sit-to-stand test, one-leg standing time, maximal step length, functional reach test, and 5-m fastest walking time (walking time). The relationship between the hallux valgus angle and foot morphology and muscle strength was examined. In addition, factors affecting physical performance testing were assessed. Two-group comparisons, correlation, and multiple comparisons were used for statistical analyses.Results: Of the 133 women (age 77.7 ± 6.2 years), 57 had hallux valgus and 76 had no hallux valgus. There was a significant difference in the arch height ratio and heel-floor angle between women with and without hallux valgus (p < 0.001). A correlation was found between the hallux valgus angle and the heel-floor angle (r = 0.468, p < 0.001) and arch height ratio (r = - 0.337, p < 0.001), respectively. Multiple regression analysis showed that the hallux valgus angle was related to functional reach (β = - 0.162, p = 0.042), and toe flexor strength was related to five-repetition sit-to-stand (β = - 0.182, p = 0.036), maximal step length (β = 0.328, p < 0.001), and walking time (β = - 0.219, p = 0.006).Conclusions: A relationship was found between the hallux valgus angle, arch height rate, and inward inclination angle of the calcaneus. Functional reach was predicted based on the hallux valgus angle, whereas the five-repetition sit-to-stand, maximal step length, and walking time were predicted based on toe flexor strength. Hallux valgus predicted not only the forefoot but also the foot morphology and was related to physical performance. From the perspective of motor function and fall prevention, efforts should be made to better understand and prevent the onset and progression of hallux valgus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine the correlations amongst center of pressure (COP) trajectories, foot morphology, and knee symptoms in older women with medial knee deformity., Design: This was a cross-sectional study., Setting: Participants were recruited from 2 local orthopedic clinics., Participants: Female patients with medial knee deformity (Kellgren-Lawrence grade ≥1) aged 60 years or older (N=84)., Interventions: Not applicable., Main Outcome Measures: COP trajectories during comfortable gait were obtained using a plantar pressure distribution platform. As foot morphology metrics, hallux valgus angle, navicular/foot ratio, and leg-heel alignment were measured. The knee society scoring system was used to evaluate knee symptom severity. We used statistical parametric mapping for COP trajectory analysis to reduce the bias caused by data extraction. Multiple linear regression in statistical parametric mapping was used to determine the correlations amongst foot morphology, knee symptom severity, and COP trajectories., Results: There was a correlation between higher navicular/foot ratio and medial shift on COP at initial contact (0%∼3.0% stance phase, P<.05) and at toe-off (95.3%∼100% stance phase, P=.04). Also, higher navicular/foot ratio was associated with lateral shift of COP during single leg stance phase (8.3%∼80.1% stance phase, P<.01). We also found a significant correlation between lateral shift of COP during loading response phase (6.8%∼19.0% stance phase) and knee symptom severity (P=.03)., Conclusions: Our results indicated that patients with severe knee symptoms may benefit from intervention to modify the foot arch and to medially shift the COP, which may be capable of relieving knee symptoms. Although our results do not directly show pain reduction, a medial COP shift could indeed reduce pain in cases where knee adduction moment is responsible for pain. These findings may contribute to the further development of conservative intervention, which focus on foot morphology of patients with knee osteoarthritis., (Copyright © 2024 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The plantar aponeurosis comprises medial, central, and lateral bands, which arise from the calcaneal tuberosity. Descriptions of the origin of the abductor hallucis vary among different textbooks. The central band and abductor hallucis muscles are related to the windlass mechanism. Given the uncertainties regarding the details of the origins of the central band and the abductor hallucis muscle, we examined those origins in 100 feet of 50 cadavers (25 males and 25 females) by dissection. There were three central band patterns, depending on the attachment sites of the origins of the central and lateral bands: Pattern Ia, the central band covers the lateral band completely; Pattern Ib, the central band covers part of the lateral band; Pattern II, the lateral band covers part of the central band. The origin of the abductor hallucis muscle was confirmed. It showed two types of variation: attachment type, originating from the central band; non-attachment type, not originating from the central band. Central band Patterns Ia, Ib, and II were found in 23 feet (17 males, 6 females), 24 feet (25 males, 28 females), and 24 feet (eight males, 16 females), respectively. Pattern Ia predominated in males and Pattern II in females. The attachment and non-attachment types of abductor hallucis muscle were observed in 28 feet (28%) and 72 feet (72%), respectively. The attachment type with Patterns Ia, Ib, and II was shown in 17 feet, 10 feet, and one foot, respectively. Thus, we revealed variation and sex differences in the central band, which could affect foot morphology and the efficacy of the windlass mechanism., (© 2024 American Association of Clinical Anatomists and British Association of Clinical Anatomists.)

Abstract Background Foot morphology is associated with altered loading of the ankle–foot complex in adolescent footballers, predisposing to pain and injury. However, usual singular plane clinical assessments do not accurately capture the 3D nature of foot morphology. A new approach is 3D laser scanning, with statistical shape model techniques creating individual‐to‐group comparison. However, no research exists on the adolescent, football‐playing foot. Furthermore, a link between 3D foot morphology, and usual clinical and performance measures would be beneficial for practical implementation. Methods Four hundred forty‐seven 3D foot scans from 224 elite male footballers (U12‐U19) in bilateral stance were collected and further processed with statistical shape model techniques. Weighted shape parameters for individual principal components (Modes) were extracted for each foot. Centre of pressure displacement expressed as total travelled way in millimetres was calculated for bilateral and unilateral postural stability measures. Clinical assessments (Clarke's Angle, Resting Calcaneal Stance Position) were calculated on the 3D foot scans. Differences in weighted shape parameters, postural stability measures, and clinical assessments between age groups were determined by ANOVA. Correlations determined the relationship of Modes and clinical assessments to postural stability measures. Linear regression established if clinical assessments predicted the mode describing foot arch variation. Results Age groups significantly differed for Mode 1 (foot length), Mode 2 (foot arch), and Mode 5 (tibial rotation relative to the foot) (p

Falls are common among older adults. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the relationship between foot anatomical structural variations and balance in older adults and quantify foot posture and stabilometry as predictors of fall risk. This case-control study of older adults classified cases or controls according to falls in the last five years. All subjects were healthy women and men > 65 years old (n = 164), who were divided into two groups: 83 individuals who had suffered from a fall in the previous five years (case group) and 81 individuals who had not suffered from a fall (control group). Hallux abductus valgus (HAV) and tailor's bunion are stability-determining factors. Women have a higher probability of falling. HAV (p = 0.042) and tailor's bunion (p = 0.069) also increased the fall probability. Morphological foot variations (HAV and tailor's bunion) linked to gender and age increase fall risk among older adults. In women fallers with HAV, there was a higher possibility of falling (63.9%). According to age, in older adults with HAV, the percentage of falls is high (62%). Fallers with tailor's bunion (60.7%) are more numerous than fallers without this pathology. Older adults with HAV and tailor´s bunion had twice the probability of suffering a fall than older people without foot anatomical structural. Foot morphology is decisive in falling risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The current studies of walking performance in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients lack comparison among groups with different severity levels and have ignored the impact of foot posture on walking. OBJECTIVE: To explore the differences in foot posture and walking performance of patients with mild, moderate, and severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis compared with healthy peers and provide scientific basis for the function assessment and rehabilitation in the future. METHODS: A total of 96 subjects were included in the study, including 64 adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients and 32 healthy voluntary adolescents as the healthy group. Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients were subdivided into mild, moderate, and severe grades according to the Cobb angle, including 18 mild cases, 32 moderate cases and 14 severe cases. An experienced physiotherapist assessed a subject's foot posture according to the Foot Posture Index. A 3D foot morphology scanner was used to scan for morphological parameters of the foot and GaitScan instrument for gait and plantar pressure data collection. Comparative analysis was conducted between mild, moderate, and severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients and healthy adolescents, and the characteristics of foot posture, balance, gait, and plantar pressure distribution were summarized. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) In terms of foot morphology and posture, the foot arch index of the moderate and severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis groups was significantly higher than the healthy group, and the foot posture index of the severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis group was significantly higher than the healthy group (P < 0.05). (2) Regarding gait parameters, the severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis group had advanced loading response, and a delayed terminal stance as compared with the healthy group (P < 0.05). The walking speed of the moderate and severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis group was slower than the healthy group, and the center of pressure excursion index increased significantly (P < 0.05). (3) Regarding plantar pressure distribution, the pressure percentages of the medial and lateral heel of the severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis groups were significantly higher and lower than the healthy group (P < 0.05). The percentage of the first metatarsal pressure in the severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis group was significantly higher than the healthy group, and the percentage of the third, fourth and fifth metatarsal pressure was significantly lower than the healthy group (P < 0.05). (4) For the static balance, the load ratio of the forefoot of severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients was significantly lower than the rear foot, and the load ratio of the left foot was significantly lower than the right foot (P < 0.05). (5) It is concluded that the walking efficiency and stability of patients with moderate to severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis decreased significantly. Future studies on walking of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients should consider foot posture as an accompanied factor, because foot posture may affect walking performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Existing clinical measures to describe foot morphology are limited in that they are commonly two-dimensional, low in resolution and accuracy, and do not accurately represent the multi-planar and complex changes during development across childhood. Using three-dimensional (3D) scanner technology provides the opportunity to understand more about morphological changes throughout childhood with higher resolution and potentially more relevant 3D shape measures. This is important to advance the prevailing arguments about the typical development of children’s feet and inform the development of appropriate clinical measures. 3D shape descriptors derived from 3D scanning can be used to quantify changes in shape at each point of the 3D surface. The aim of this study was to determine whether 3D shape descriptors derived from 3D scanning data can identify differences in foot morphology between children of different ages. Methods Fifteen children were recruited from three age groups (2, 5, and 7 years of age). Both feet were scanned in bipedal stance, using the Artec Eva (Artec Group, Luxembourg, Luxembourg) hand-held scanner. Three dimensional shape descriptors were extracted from the 3D scans of the right foot, to create histograms for each age group and heat maps of representative participants for comparison. Results There were changes to the dorsal, medial and lateral surfaces of the feet with age. The surfaces became less round along with an increase in indented areas. This is supported by the heat maps which demonstrated that the surfaces of the anatomical landmarks (e.g. the malleoli and navicular tuberosity) became more rounded and protruding, with indented surfaces appearing around these landmarks. On the plantar surface, the concavity of the midfoot was evident and this concavity extended into the midfoot from the medial aspect as age increased. Conclusions The findings of this study indicated that with increasing age the foot becomes thinner in 3D, with bony architecture emerging, and the medial longitudinal arch (MLA) increases in area and concavity. Three-dimensional shape descriptors have shown good potential for locating and quantifying changes in foot structure across childhood. Three-dimensional shape descriptor data will be beneficial for understanding more about foot development and quantifying changes over time.

Falls are common among older adults. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the relationship between foot anatomical structural variations and balance in older adults and quantify foot posture and stabilometry as predictors of fall risk. This case-control study of older adults classified cases or controls according to falls in the last five years. All subjects were healthy women and men > 65 years old (n = 164), who were divided into two groups: 83 individuals who had suffered from a fall in the previous five years (case group) and 81 individuals who had not suffered from a fall (control group). Hallux abductus valgus (HAV) and tailor’s bunion are stability-determining factors. Women have a higher probability of falling. HAV (p = 0.042) and tailor’s bunion (p = 0.069) also increased the fall probability. Morphological foot variations (HAV and tailor’s bunion) linked to gender and age increase fall risk among older adults. In women fallers with HAV, there was a higher possibility of falling (63.9%). According to age, in older adults with HAV, the percentage of falls is high (62%). Fallers with tailor’s bunion (60.7%) are more numerous than fallers without this pathology. Older adults with HAV and tailor´s bunion had twice the probability of suffering a fall than older people without foot anatomical structural. Foot morphology is decisive in falling risk.

This study developed a method that predicts laterally deviated plantar pressure during stance by lower limb anthropometrics and self-reported ability to stop an ankle which has started to roll over. Thirty-two males ran on a treadmill for 2 minutes at 11 km/h. Foot pressure data were collected by a pressure insole system for classifying the participants as medial or lateral strikers. Cumberland Ankle Instability Tool score, Tegner Activity Scale score, foot arch height, active and passive ankle and knee range of motion, bi-malleolar width, foot length, foot width and calf circumference were measured. Binary logistic regressions were performed to produce a model which estimated if an individual showed laterally deviated foot pressure during stance. The model utilized the score of Cumberland Ankle Instability Tool Question 8, active and passive knee joint external rotation, height, body mass and bimalleolar width (explained variance of 47.3%, p = 0.037), producing a sensitivity of 71.4% and a specificity of 54.5%. A validation trial on another 15 runners reported a 73.3% accuracy in prediction if they are medial or lateral strikes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: A novel method for three-dimensional sole morphological measurements gives high intra-rater, inter-rater, and inter-session reliability regardless of the rater's experience or time of measurement, and will be useful for foot assessment and subsequent applications, such as design and manufacture of customized orthoses or shoes.Background: Assessment of the sole morphology provides a clinically useful measure of the foot condition, but existing methods are mostly limited to two-dimensional or non-weight-bearing conditions. The current study aimed to assess the reliability of a novel method called Single-Image-Based Pin-Array Impression Reconstruction Method (SIBPAIR) implemented on a commercial foot assessment system, and the intra-rater, inter-rater and inter-session reliability of the SIBPAIR-based protocol for three-dimensional sole morphological measurements. Methods: The reliability of the SIBPAIR method, and the intra-rater, inter-rater, and inter-session reliability of the SIBPAIR-based protocol in measuring morphological parameters of the sole were assessed by repeated measurements of fifteen young healthy adults by two male physical therapists, in terms of intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) and standard error of measurement (SEM). Results and Conclusions: The SIBPAIR method was found to have very high reliability with very small SEM values, and the SIBPAIR-based protocol also showed very high intra-rater, inter-rater, and inter-session reliability with small SEM. These results indicate that accurate and reliable measurements could be obtained by following the protocol regardless of the rater's experience or time of measurement. This will be useful for foot assessment and subsequent applications, such as design and manufacture of customized orthoses or shoes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hallux valgus, lesser toe deformity, and muscle weakness of the toe flexors contribute to falls in older people. This study aimed to examine the differences in toe flexor strength and foot morphology in older people requiring long-term care due to changes in the way they mobilize in everyday life. Methods: This study included 84 people aged ≥70 years without motor paralysis who underwent rehabilitation. They were divided into those who could mobilize without a wheelchair (walking group, n = 54) and those who used a wheelchair to mobilize (wheelchair group, n = 30). The presence or absence of diseases was confirmed, and hand grip strength, toe flexor strength, and foot morphology using the foot printer were measured. The presence of diseases, hand grip strength, toe flexor strength, and foot morphology were compared between the two groups. Multiple logistic analysis was performed with wheelchair dependence as the dichotomous outcome variable, and the percentages of each strength measure observed in the wheelchair group to the average hand grip and toe flexor strength measures in the walking group were compared. Results: No significant between-group difference in foot morphology was found. The factors related to the differences in ways of ambulating in daily life were history of fracture, heart disease, and toe flexor strength. After comparing the muscle strength of the wheelchair group with the mean values of the walking group, we found that the toe flexor strength was significantly lower than the hand grip strength. Conclusions: Older people who used a wheelchair to mobilize have significantly less toe flexor strength than those who do not despite no significant difference in foot morphology. Use of a wheelchair is associated with a reduction in toe flexor strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Hallux valgus, lesser toe deformity, and muscle weakness of the toe flexors contribute to falls in older people. This study aimed to examine the differences in toe flexor strength and foot morphology in older people requiring long‐term care due to changes in the way they mobilize in everyday life. Methods This study included 84 people aged ≥70 years without motor paralysis who underwent rehabilitation. They were divided into those who could mobilize without a wheelchair (walking group, n = 54) and those who used a wheelchair to mobilize (wheelchair group, n = 30). The presence or absence of diseases was confirmed, and hand grip strength, toe flexor strength, and foot morphology using the foot printer were measured. The presence of diseases, hand grip strength, toe flexor strength, and foot morphology were compared between the two groups. Multiple logistic analysis was performed with wheelchair dependence as the dichotomous outcome variable, and the percentages of each strength measure observed in the wheelchair group to the average hand grip and toe flexor strength measures in the walking group were compared. Results No significant between‐group difference in foot morphology was found. The factors related to the differences in ways of ambulating in daily life were history of fracture, heart disease, and toe flexor strength. After comparing the muscle strength of the wheelchair group with the mean values of the walking group, we found that the toe flexor strength was significantly lower than the hand grip strength. Conclusions Older people who used a wheelchair to mobilize have significantly less toe flexor strength than those who do not despite no significant difference in foot morphology. Use of a wheelchair is associated with a reduction in toe flexor strength.

The medial longitudinal arch is considered as an essential feature which distinguishes humans from other primates. The longitudinal arch plays a supporting and buffering role in human daily physical activities. However, bad movement patterns could lead to deformation of arch morphology, resulting in foot injuries. The authors aimed to investigate any alterations in static and dynamic arch index following different weight bearings. A further aim was to analyze any changes in plantar pressure distribution characteristics on gait during walking and stopping, Twelve males were required to complete foot morphology scans and three types of gait tests with 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% of additional body weight. The dynamic gait tests included walking, planned and unplanned gait termination. Foot morphology details and plantar pressure data were collected from subjects using the Easy-Foot-Scan and Footscan pressure platform. No significant differences were observed in static arch index when adding low levels of additional body weight (10%). There were no significant changes observed in dynamic arch index when loads were added in the range of 20% to 30%, except in unplanned gait termination. Significant maximal pressure increases were observed in the rearfoot during walking and in both the forefoot and rearfoot during planned gait termination. In addition, significant maximum pressure increases were shown in the lateral forefoot and midfoot during unplanned gait termination when weight was increased. Findings from the study indicated that excessive weight bearing could lead to a collapse of the arch structure and, therefore, increases in plantar loading. This may result in foot injuries, especially during unplanned gait termination.

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Knowledge of foot morphology is fundamental to optimize children's footwear design. The aim of this study is to compare the foot morphology of Chinese and Mongolian children from 7 to 14 years old. Relative data of 339 Mongolian children and another matched 379 Chinese children were collected using 3D foot scanner. The findings of this study are as follows: i) the absolute foot length of Chinese children is significantly greater than that of Mongolian children of the same age; ii) Mongolian children show significantly greater heel width, toe thickness, lateral malleolus height, instep height and ball girth compared to Chinese children of the same age. The foot width of Chinese children is significantly greater than that of Mongolian children of the same age; iii) Chinese children have a higher risk of hallux valgus than Mongolian children of both sexes. Small variations in foot morphology discussed in this paper could be useful when considering the shoes design for Mongolian and Chinese children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Estimating human stature is a major concern to formulate a biological profile which provides effective data for forensic identification. This research was aimed to generate a formula for estimating stature from human foot anthropometry. Methods: This study was conducted in selected 150 male and 150 female subjects within the range of 18 to 60 years randomly. From each subject, stature and seven-foot measurements were taken by applying the standard technique. Stature was estimated from foot measurements by using linear and multiple regression equations. Results: The result showed that each foot measurement was significantly (p < 0.001) and positively correlated with stature. Bilateral difference among male and female was not significant (p < 0.05). Multiple regression models showed better accuracy in estimating stature than linear regression models. Conclusion: In conclusion, it can be said that human stature can be successfully estimated by using foot measurements which can be applied in forensic investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Assessment of the sole morphology provides a clinically useful measure of the foot condition, but existing methods are mostly limited to two-dimensional or non-weight-bearing conditions. The current study aimed to assess the reliability of a novel method called Single-Image-Based Pin-Array Impression Reconstruction Method (SIBPAIR) implemented on a commercial foot assessment system, and the intra-rater, inter-rater and inter-session reliability of the SIBPAIR-based protocol for three-dimensional sole morphological measurements. Methods: The reliability of the SIBPAIR method, and the intra-rater, inter-rater, and inter-session reliability of the SIBPAIR-based protocol in measuring morphological parameters of the sole were assessed by repeated measurements of fifteen young healthy adults by two male physical therapists, in terms of intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) and standard error of measurement (SEM). Results and Conclusions: The SIBPAIR method was found to have very high reliability with very small SEM values, and the SIBPAIR-based protocol also showed very high intra-rater, inter-rater, and inter-session reliability with small SEM. These results indicate that accurate and reliable measurements could be obtained by following the protocol regardless of the rater’s experience or time of measurement. This will be useful for foot assessment and subsequent applications, such as design and manufacture of customized orthoses or shoes.

Background: Existing clinical measures to describe foot morphology are limited in that they are commonly two-dimensional, low in resolution and accuracy, and do not accurately represent the multi-planar and complex changes during development across childhood. Using three-dimensional (3D) scanner technology provides the opportunity to understand more about morphological changes throughout childhood with higher resolution and potentially more relevant 3D shape measures. This is important to advance the prevailing arguments about the typical development of children's feet and inform the development of appropriate clinical measures. 3D shape descriptors derived from 3D scanning can be used to quantify changes in shape at each point of the 3D surface. The aim of this study was to determine whether 3D shape descriptors derived from 3D scanning data can identify differences in foot morphology between children of different ages. Methods: Fifteen children were recruited from three age groups (2, 5, and 7 years of age). Both feet were scanned in bipedal stance, using the Artec Eva (Artec Group, Luxembourg, Luxembourg) hand-held scanner. Three dimensional shape descriptors were extracted from the 3D scans of the right foot, to create histograms for each age group and heat maps of representative participants for comparison. Results: There were changes to the dorsal, medial and lateral surfaces of the feet with age. The surfaces became less round along with an increase in indented areas. This is supported by the heat maps which demonstrated that the surfaces of the anatomical landmarks (e.g. the malleoli and navicular tuberosity) became more rounded and protruding, with indented surfaces appearing around these landmarks. On the plantar surface, the concavity of the midfoot was evident and this concavity extended into the midfoot from the medial aspect as age increased. Conclusions: The findings of this study indicated that with increasing age the foot becomes thinner in 3D, with bony architecture emerging, and the medial longitudinal arch (MLA) increases in area and concavity. Three-dimensional shape descriptors have shown good potential for locating and quantifying changes in foot structure across childhood. Three-dimensional shape descriptor data will be beneficial for understanding more about foot development and quantifying changes over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Barefoot and shod running has received increased attention in recent years, however, the influence of morphology-related foot function has not been explored. This study aimed to investigate morphology-related jumping and running biomechanical functions in habitually barefoot and shod males. A total of 90 barefoot males (Indians) and 130 shod males (Chinese), with significant forefoot and toe morphology differences, participated in a vertical jump and running test to enable the collection of kinematic and kinetic data. The difference of pressure distribution in the hallux and forefoot was shown while jumping and running. The unrestricted forefoot and toes of the barefoot group presented flexible movement and leverage functions to expand the forefoot loading area during performance of the two tasks. Findings related to morphology functions, especially in the forefoot and toe may provide useful information for footwear design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hallux valgus (HV) is one common deformity of the human foot. Metatarsal pain, gait deviation and foot function disorder may occur when HV is severe.Research Question: It was hypothesized that a 12-week minimalist shoes running intervention among mild and moderate hallux valgus males may alter foot morphology and plantar pressure distribution during walking and running.Methods: The foot morphology and plantar pressure data, in this study, were collected from eleven participants using the Easy-Foot-Scan (EFS) and Novel EMED force plate.Results: Compared to pre-intervention sessions, the hallux abductus angle and forefoot width decreased significantly with increased metatarsal waist girth in the post-intervention session. The peak pressure, maximum force and force time integral in the first metatarsal reduced significantly due to the distribution of plantar pressure to the central foot regions.Significance: The findings suggest that minimalist shoes may deform forefoot morphology and neutralize loading concentration for mild and moderate hallux valgus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. The symptomatic ftat foot is produced by an abnormal medial column overloading, which leads to lesions of tendons and ligaments and lately to bone deformity. Because the debut can be insidious and the symptoms are not always correlated with the severity of the disease, is important for a radiologist or orthopedist to be able to recognize, using anatomical and morphometrical knowledge of the foot, of the early signs of flat foot. Objectives. The aim of the study vas assess if the calcaneal inclination angle can be used for early diagnosis of flat feet. Materials and methods. We included in this retrospective study 50 patients with flat feet and 50 subjects without any pathology of the foot. The measurement were taken on lateral incidence x-ray images. Results. The values of the calcaneal inclination angle of normal subjects were significantly higher than for the patients with flat feet (20,03 ± 4.45 versus 14.49±1.77 degrees). Conclusions. Knowledge of the morphology of the foot is very important to understand mobility at this level and pathological changes which may occur both in terms of anatomical and biomechanical. The results of this study can be used by orthopedic specialists for early detection of changes which may lead to flat foot, especially if we take into account that they can be appied to present Romanian population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Barefoot and shod running has received increased attention in recent years, however, the influence of morphology-related foot function has not been explored. This study aimed to investigate morphology-related jumping and running biomechanical functions in habitually barefoot and shod males. A total of 90 barefoot males (Indians) and 130 shod males (Chinese), with significant forefoot and toe morphology differences, participated in a vertical jump and running test to enable the collection of kinematic and kinetic data. The difference of pressure distribution in the hallux and forefoot was shown while jumping and running. The unrestricted forefoot and toes of the barefoot group presented flexible movement and leverage functions to expand the forefoot loading area during performance of the two tasks. Findings related to morphology functions, especially in the forefoot and toe may provide useful information for footwear design.

Obese children with flatfoot tolerate not only the excessive load, but also the foot structure deformity. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of different foot types on the foot morphology and plantar pressure distributions of obese children. Relative data of 30 obese children with flatfoot and another matched 30 obese children with normal arch foot were recorded. When the foot measures were normalized to the length of the foot, significantly lower instep height and longer instep circumference were found in obese children with flatfoot. Obese children with flatfoot displayed significantly greater pressure rate and force-time integral beneath the midfoot region, while displayed decreased load pattern beneath the 5th metatarsal region. Small variations in foot morphology must be incorporated to the last design to meet the comfort and functionality requirements of specialized shoe for obese children with flatfoot. Obese children with flatfoot could be at an increased risk for midfoot injuries such as stress fractures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Many aspects of chimpanzee ankle and midfoot joint morphology are believed to reflect adaptations for arboreal locomotion. However, terrestrial travel also constitutes a significant component of chimpanzee locomotion, complicating functional interpretations of chimpanzee and fossil hominin foot morphology. Here we tested hypotheses of foot motion and, in keeping with general assumptions, we predicted that chimpanzees would use greater ankle and midfoot joint ranges of motion during travel on arboreal supports than on the ground. Methods We used a high-speed motion capture system to measure three-dimensional kinematics of the ankle and midfoot joints in two male chimpanzees during three locomotor modes: terrestrial quadrupedalism on a flat runway, arboreal quadrupedalism on a horizontally oriented tree trunk, and climbing on a vertically oriented tree trunk. Results Chimpanzees used relatively high ankle joint dorsiflexion angles during all three locomotor modes, although dorsiflexion was greatest in arboreal modes. They used higher subtalar joint coronal plane ranges of motion during terrestrial and arboreal quadrupedalism than during climbing, due in part to their use of high eversion angles in the former. Finally, they used high midfoot inversion angles during arboreal locomotor modes, but used similar midfoot sagittal plane kinematics across all locomotor modes. Discussion The results indicate that chimpanzees use large ranges of motion at their various ankle and midfoot joints during both terrestrial and arboreal locomotion. Therefore, we argue that chimpanzee foot anatomy enables a versatile locomotor repertoire, and urge caution when using foot joint morphology to reconstruct arboreal behavior in fossil hominins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pedography provides excellent visualization of the footprint. However, the correlation between the footprint images and radiographic measures has not been thoroughly evaluated. Therefore, the objectives of our study were to examine the correlation between the pedography-based measures of foot morphology and radiographic measurements and to propose reference values for the diagnosis of flatfoot using footprint imaging. The plantar footprints of 100 right feet were photographed using a pedography standing platform. The sole and arch areas were measured to calculate the footprint index (FPI). The lateral talar–first metatarsal angle (LTM) and calcaneal pitch angle (CP) were measured on standing lateral radiographs, and the talonavicular coverage angle was measured on frontal radiographs. The Pearson moment correlation between the FPI and radiography-based measures was calculated. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was calculated using an LTM of <−4° as the identifying criterion of flatfoot. The sensitivity and specificity of FPI were calculated for LTM values <−4°. The FPI correlated with the LTM (y = −17.964 ± 52.644x, R = 0.588) and CP (y = 9.2304 ± 27.739x, R = 0.659) but not with the talonavicular coverage angle (y = 26.01 ± 15.78x, R = 0.207). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.753, with a cutoff FPI of 0.208, yielding a sensitivity of 0.462 and specificity of 0.934 for flatfoot identification. Pedography could provide an easy screening tool for flatfoot, with an FPI cutoff of 0.208, yielding a specificity of 93.4%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study examined differences in ankle motion and plantar pressure between habitually barefoot male (HBM) and habitually shod male (HSM) during vertical jump. Methods: Eighteen habitually barefoot males and twenty habitually shod males volunteered to join the test. Distance between hallux and second toe was measured with Easy-Foot-Scan. Plantar pressure and ankle kinematics were measured with EMED force platform and Vicon motion analysis system respectively. T test was taken to analyse the significant differences using Stata 12.0 software. Results: The distance between hallux and other toes in HBM was greater than it in HSM. HBM showed larger plantar loading under hallux and medial forefoot, while HSM showed lager plantar loading under medial and central forefoot. HBM had smaller ankle plantarflexion, eversion and external rotation than HSM. Conclusion: Findings of this study provide basic information for further studies on different hallux/toe function in motion control between habitually shod and barefoot populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]