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What causes interference in short-term memory? We report the novel finding that immediate memory for visually-presented verbal items is sensitive to disruption from task-irrelevant vibrotactile stimuli. Specifically, short-term memory for a visual sequence is disrupted by a concurrently presented sequence of vibrations, but only when the vibrotactile sequence entails change (when the sequence “jumps” between the two hands). The impact on visual-verbal serial recall was similar in magnitude to that for auditory stimuli (Experiment 1). Performance of the missing item task, requiring recall of item-identity rather than item-order, was unaffected by changing-state vibrotactile stimuli (Experiment 2), as with changing-state auditory stimuli. Moreover, the predictability of the changing-state sequence did not modulate the magnitude of the effect, arguing against an attention-capture conceptualisation (Experiment 3). Results support the view that interference in short-term memory is produced by conflict between incompatible, amodal serial-ordering processes (interference-by-process) rather than interference between similar representational codes (interference-by-content). Funding: Forskningsradet for Arbetsliv och Socialvetenskap [2211-0505]; Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Stiftelse [2014.0205]; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada [2020-05626]; Bial Foundation [201/20]; Swedish Research Council- Vetenskapsradet [2015-01116]

Cognitive training aims to produce a durable transfer to untrained abilities (i.e., far transfer). However, designing effective programs is difficult, because far transfer mechanisms are not well understood. Greenwood and Parasuraman (Neuropsychol 30(6):742-755. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000235 , 2016) proposed that the ability to ignore distractions is key in promoting far transfer. While the authors identified working-memory training based on the N-back task as an effective way to train distraction suppression, a recent meta-analysis concluded that this form of training rarely produces far transfer. Such inconsistency casts doubt onto the importance of distraction suppression in far transfer and calls for further examination of the role of this ability in cognitive training effectiveness. We propose here to conceptualize distraction suppression in the light of the load theory of attention, which distinguishes two mechanisms of distractor rejection depending on the level and type of information load involved: perceptual selection and cognitive control. From that standpoint, N-back training engages a single suppression mechanism, namely cognitive control, because it mainly involves low perceptual load. In the present study, we compared the efficacy of N-back training in producing far transfer to that of a new response-competition training paradigm that solicits both distraction suppression mechanisms. Response-competition training was the only one to produce far transfer effects relative to an active control training. These findings provided further support to Greenwood and Parasuraman's hypothesis and suggest that both selection perception and cognitive control need to be engaged during training to increase the ability to suppress distraction, hence to promote far transfer.

A rare and unexpected change (or deviation) in the properties of an irrelevant auditory background can disrupt performance of a visual focal task via attentional capture. Although this effect is typically caused by a change in the acoustic properties of the sound, recent evidence has shown that a change in (semantic) category within a sound stream could also disrupt ongoing cognitive activity. The present study aimed to investigate the functional characteristics of this recently discovered categorical deviation effect. In two experiments, an irrelevant sound stream was presented while participants performed visual serial recall. We examined whether working memory capacity (WMC) is associated with susceptibility to distraction by an unexpected change in category within the sound. Acoustically deviating sounds were also presented to compare the categorical and acoustic deviation effects directly. Both experiments revealed that the categorical deviation effect was not correlated with WMC. The expected relationship between WMC and the acoustic deviation effect was observed, but the acoustic and categorical deviation effects were unrelated. Our results constitute new evidence of a distinction between the acoustic and categorical deviation effects despite their apparent similarity. They also suggest that the categorical deviation effect is not underpinned by attentional capture.

Les conversations téléphoniques (demilogues) ou entre collègues (dialogues) en arrière-plan sont particulièrement dérangeantes dans les bureaux de travail à aire ouverte. De récents travaux proposent que les discussions portant sur des sujets de nature personnelle possèdent un potentiel distracteur accru qui les rendrait pratiquement impossibles à ignorer. Ce serait l’aspect intrigant des conversations personnelles qui favoriserait leur écoute volontaire. La présente étude tente de confirmer cette hypothèse en comparant l’impact distracteur des conversations professionnelles et personnelles. Ainsi, 240 participants réalisent une tâche de bureau soit en silence, soit en présence d’un dialogue ou d’un demilogue à ignorer. Ces conversations non pertinentes comprennent un discours au contenu soit personnel, soit professionnel. Le degré d’engagement à la tâche, censé offrir une protection contre la distraction, est manipulé en employant une police à caractère fluente (facile à lire) ou disfluente (difficile à lire). Les résultats montrent que les conversations, tronquées ou complètes, entraînent une diminution de la performance à la tâche indépendamment de leur contenu. L’utilisation d’une police disfluente ne module pas non plus l’effet distracteur de ces conversations. Ces résultats proposent que les travailleurs dans les bureaux à aire ouverte seraient distraits par les conversations ambiantes, peu importe la nature du contenu.

Security surveillance entails many cognitive challenges (e.g., task interruption, vigilance decrements, cognitive overload). To help surveillance operators overcome these difficulties and perform more efficient visual search, gaze-based intelligent systems can be developed. The present study aimed at testing the impact of the Scantracker system—which pinpointed neglected cameras while detecting and correcting attentional tunneling and vigilance decrease—on human scanning behavior and surveillance performance. Participants took part in a surveillance simulation, monitoring cameras and searching for ongoing incidents, and half of them was supported by the Scantracker. Although behavioral surveillance performance was not improved, participants supported by the Scantracker showed more efficient gaze-based measures of surveillance. Moreover, some of these measures were associated with performance, suggesting that scan pattern improvements might lead indirectly to more efficient incident detection. Overall, these results speak to the potential of using gaze- aware intelligent systems to support surveillance operators.

BACKGROUND Wearable devices collect physiological and behavioral data that have the potential to identify individuals at risk of declining mental health and well-being. Past research has mainly focused on assessing the accuracy and the agreement of heart rate (HR) measurement of wearables under different physical exercise conditions. However, the capacity of wearables to sense physiological changes, assessed by increasing HR, caused by a stressful event has not been thoroughly studied. OBJECTIVE This study followed three objectives. First, to test the ability of a wearable device (Fitbit Versa 2) to sense an increase in HR upon induction of psychological stress in the laboratory. Second, to assess the accuracy of the wearable device to capture short-term HR variations caused by psychological stress compared to a gold-standard electrocardiogram (ECG) measure (Biopac). Third, to quantify the degree of agreement between the wearable device and the gold-standard ECG measure across different experimental conditions. METHODS Participants underwent the Trier Social Stress Test protocol which consists of an oral phase, an arithmetic stress phase, an anticipation phase, and two relaxation phases (at the beginning and the end). During the stress protocol, participants wore a Fitbit Versa 2 and were also connected to a Biopac. A mixed-effect modeling approach was used to assess 1) the effect of experimental conditions on HR and 2) to estimate several metrics of accuracy and 3) agreement: the Bland-Altman limits of agreement, the concordance correlation coefficient, the coverage probability, the total deviation index, and the coefficient of individual agreement. Mean absolute error and mean absolute percent error were calculated as accuracy indices. RESULTS A total of 34 university students were recruited for this study (64% of participants were female with a mean age of 26.8 years SD=8.3). Overall, results showed significant HR variations across experimental phases. Post-hoc tests revealed significant pairwise differences for all phases. Accuracy analyses revealed acceptable accuracy for the Fitbit Versa 2 to capture the short-term variations in psychological stress levels. However, poor indices of agreement between the Fitbit Versa 2 and the Biopac were found. CONCLUSIONS Overall, results support the use of the Fitbit Versa 2 to capture short-term stress variations. The Fitbit device showed acceptable levels of accuracy but poor agreement with an ECG gold standard. Greater inaccuracy and smaller agreement were found for stressful experimental conditions that induced a higher HR. Fitbit device can be used in research to measure HR variations caused by stress although it cannot replace an ECG instrument when precision is of utmost importance.

Les différentes théories de l’impulsivité suggèrent que la présence plus prononcée de ce trait de personnalité est liée à une plus grande susceptibilité à la distraction. Une distractibilité accrue pourrait être particulièrement problématique dans les environnements caractérisés par la présence de bruits ambiants comme les bureaux à aire ouverte. La recherche montre notamment que les conversations en arrière-plan sont dérangeantes, plus spécifiquement les demilogues, ces conversations téléphoniques où un seul interlocuteur est entendu. Ainsi, la présente étude vise à vérifier si les individus plus impulsifs sont plus sensibles à l’effet de demilogue que ceux moins impulsifs. Pour ce faire, 60 adultes effectuent une tâche de bureau informatisée écologique en présence d’un demilogue, d’un dialogue (où les deux interlocuteurs peuvent être entendus) ou en silence. À l’aide de deux mesures auto-rapportées de l’impulsivité, les participants sont groupés selon leur niveau d’impulsivité : faible ou élevé. Les résultats montrent une diminution de la performance en présence de dialogue et de demilogue, sans égard au niveau d’impulsivité. La sensibilité à l’effet de demilogue n’est donc pas influencée par le niveau d’impulsivité. Ces résultats vont à l’encontre des théories existantes, remettant ainsi en question l’association entre impulsivité et distractibilité.

In complex dynamic work environments, the consequences of task interruptions on performance can put public safety at risk. If not designed carefully, current tools aiming to facilitate interruption recovery can instead hamper performance because of information overload. Although a simpler solution-the forewarning of an imminent interruption-has proven effective in static contexts, existing theories of task interruption do not clearly predict its impact on the resumption of dynamically evolving tasks. The current study examined the effects of a preinterruption warning in dynamic settings to develop a better understanding of task resumption and supplement current theoretical accounts. In a simulation of above-water warfare, scenarios were either uninterrupted, unexpectedly interrupted, or interrupted following an auditory warning. Behavioral, oculomotor, and pupillometric data regarding decision making, information processing, and cognitive load were computed before, during, and after each interruption (or the corresponding moment). Interruption warnings triggered a cognitively demanding preinterruption preparation that, in turn, speeded up postinterruption information processing and decision making and lowered cognitive load when resuming the interrupted task. These findings help to complement current theories of interruptions while showing that preinterruption warnings represent a promising way to support interruption recovery in complex dynamic situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Sight-singing is prevalent in aural skill classes, where learners differ in experience and cognitive abilities. In this research, we investigated whether musical experience, level of study, and working memory capacity (WMC) can predict sight-singing performance and if there is a correlation between WMC and performance among some subgroups of participants. We hypothesized that more experienced students and those with a higher WMC might sight-sing better than those with less experience and lesser WMC. We also hypothesized that the relationship between WMC and sight-singing performance would be more salient for less experienced and less proficient sight-singers. We surveyed 56 subjects about their experience with music, assessed their WMC, and evaluated their performance on a short sight-singing task. The results showed that the age when students began learning music could predict sight-singing performance independently from the number of years of experience and the educational level, suggesting a possible developmental component to sight-singing skill. We also found a negative relationship between WMC and pitch score in the low-performing group and between rhythm and pitch score, suggesting that pitch and rhythm are processed differently. Teachers should be aware of how students’ backgrounds might be related to performance and encourage them to develop strong automated skills, such as reading music or singing basic tonal patterns.

The mere presence of task-irrelevant auditory stimuli is known to interfere with cognitive functioning. Disruption can be caused by changing auditory distractors (the changing-state effect) or by a sound that deviates from the auditory background (the deviation effect). The unitary account of auditory distraction explains both phenomena in terms of attentional capture whereas the duplex-mechanism account posits that they reflect two fundamentally different forms of distraction in which only the deviation effect is caused by attentional capture. To test these predictions, we exploited a physiological index of attention orienting: the pupillary dilation response (PDR). Participants performed visual serial recall while ignoring sequences of spoken letters. These sequences either comprised repeated or changing letters, and one letter could sometimes be replaced by pink noise (the deviant). Recall was poorer in both changing-state and deviant trials. Interestingly, the PDR was elicited by deviant sounds but not changing-state sounds, while a tonic increase in pupil size was found throughout changing-state trials. This physiological dissociation of the changing-state and the deviation effects suggests they are subtended by distinct mechanisms thereby procuring support for the duplex-mechanism account over the unitary account.

Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is increasingly used as a means to ensure the safety and security of critical infrastructure and public spaces. Operators in control rooms are responsible for monitoring multiple camera feeds that generally exceed the number of screens available. Using a realistic video surveillance simulation, the current study investigates strategies that untrained operators use to deal with this visual overload. The majority of participants adopted a priority strategy by fixating some scenes more than others, as opposed to a parity strategy of devoting roughly equal time across all screens—although participants were largely unaware of the strategy they had used. A parity approach led to better detection performance, perhaps because less time elapsed between viewing each available camera feed thus reducing the probability that an incident could pass unnoticed. The identification of successful scanning strategies can be used to inform operator training.

Multitasking-the performance of several tasks at the same time-is becoming increasingly prevalent in workplaces. Multitasking is known to disrupt performance, particularly in complex and dynamic si ...

The rare presentation of a sound that deviates from the auditory background tends to capture attention, which is known to impede cognitive functioning. Such disruption is usually measured using per...

The failure to notice critical changes in both visual and auditory scenes may have important consequences for performance in complex dynamic environments, especially those related to security, such as aviation, surveillance during major events, and command and control of emergency response. Previous work has shown that a significant number of situation changes remain undetected by operators in such environments. In the current study, we examined the impact of using auditory warning messages to support the detection of critical situation changes and to a broader extent the decision making required by the environment. Twenty-two participants performed a radar operator task involving multiple subtasks while detecting critical task-related events that were cued by a specific type of audio message. Results showed that about 22% of the critical changes remained undetected by participants, a percentage similar to that found in previous work using visual cues to support change detection. However, we found that audio messages tended to bias threat evaluation toward perceiving objects as more threatening than they were in reality. Such findings revealed both benefits and costs associated with using audio messages to support change detection in complex dynamic environments.

Providing decision support to operators in command and control contexts requires careful assessment of its impacts on task performance. Here we describe a human-in-the-loop experiment using a naval air defense testbed to compare three conditions: 1) a baseline interface (DSSBASE; 2) one that displays the temporal proximity of radar aircraft (DSSTEMP); and 3) one which adds a change history panel (DSSCHEX). Threatevaluation accuracy and cognitive models of participants’ judgments did not significantly differ across conditions. Eye-tracking data showed that DSSTEMP lead to a reduced verification of track attributes. Confusion matrices also differed across conditions: DSSTEMP lead to more errors that are “two-categoriesaway” when erroneously classifying hostile aircraft as non-hostile or uncertain. We conclude that in addition to looking at standard metrics of task accuracy and response times, critical insights can be obtained by assessing how different designs for decision support may alter strategies and cognitive processes.

Cell-phone conversation is ubiquitous within public spaces. The current study investigates whether ignored cell-phone conversation impairs eyewitness memory for a perpetrator. Participants viewed a video of a staged crime in the presence of 1 side of a comprehensible cell-phone conversation (meaningful halfalogue), 2 sides of a comprehensible cell-phone conversation (meaningful dialogue), 1 side of an incomprehensible cell-phone conversation (meaningless halfalogue), or quiet. Between 24 and 28 hr later, participants freely described the perpetrator's face, constructed a single composite image of the perpetrator from memory, and attempted to identify the perpetrator from a sequential lineup. Further, participants rated the likeness of the composites to the perpetrator. Face recall and lineup identification were impaired when participants witnessed the staged crime in the presence of a meaningful halfalogue compared to a meaningless halfalogue, meaningful dialogue, or quiet. Moreover, likeness ratings showed that the composites constructed after ignoring the meaningful halfalogue resembled the perpetrator less than did those constructed after experiencing quiet or ignoring a meaningless halfalogue or a meaningful dialogue. The unpredictability of the meaningful content of the halfalogue, rather than its acoustic unexpectedness, produces distraction. The results are novel in that they suggest that an everyday distraction, even when presented in a different modality to target information, can impair the long-term memory of an eyewitness. (PsycINFO Database Record

While the development of intelligent technologies in security surveillance can augment human capabilities, they do not replace the role of the operator entirely; as such, when developing surveillance support it is critical that limitations to the cognitive system are taken into account. The current article reviews the cognitive challenges associated with the task of a CCTV operator: visual search and cognitive/perceptual overload, attentional failures, vulnerability to distraction, and decision-making in a dynamically evolving environment. While not directly applied to surveillance issues, we suggest that the NSEEV (noticing – salience, effort, expectancy, value) model of attention could provide a useful theoretical basis for understanding the challenges faced in detection and monitoring tasks. Having identified cognitive limitations of the human operator, this review sets out a research agenda for further understanding the cognitive functioning related to surveillance, and highlights the need to consider the human element at the design stage when developing technological solutions to security surveillance.

Classically, attentional selectivity has been conceptualized as a passive by-product of capacity limits on stimulus processing. Here, we examine the role of more active cognitive control processes in attentional selectivity, focusing on how distraction from task-irrelevant sound is modulated by levels of task engagement in a visually presented short-term memory task. Task engagement was varied by manipulating the load involved in the encoding of the (visually presented) to-be-remembered items. Using a list of Navon letters (where a large letter is composed of smaller, different-identity letters), participants were oriented to attend and serially recall the list of large letters (low encoding load) or to attend and serially recall the list of small letters (high encoding load). Attentional capture by a single deviant noise burst within a task-irrelevant tone sequence (the deviation effect) was eliminated under high encoding load (Experiment 1). However, distraction from a continuously changing sequence of tones (the changing-state effect) was immune to the influence of load (Experiment 2). This dissociation in the amenability of the deviation effect and the changing-state effect to cognitive control supports a duplex-mechanism over a unitary-mechanism account of auditory distraction in which the deviation effect is due to attentional capture whereas the changing-state effect reflects direct interference between the processing of the sound and processes involved in the focal task. That the changing-state effect survives high encoding load also goes against an alternative explanation of the attenuation of the deviation effect under high load in terms of the depletion of a limited perceptual resource that would result in diminished auditory processing. publishedVersion