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PurposeThis paper examines the role of occupational segregation in the evolution of wage differentials by gender and race in the Brazilian labor market between 2005 and 2015.Design/methodology/approachThe author uses microdata from the National Household Sample Survey and adopts two occupational integration typology to capture both horizontal and vertical segregation. The decomposition method proposed by Firpo et al. (2009) is employed to investigate the determinants of changes in differentials along the wage distribution.FindingsResults suggest a glass ceiling effect for all groups compared to white men. Gender and racial discrimination persist, especially at the top of the distribution. For both black women and men, observable characteristics account for most of the wage differentials, while for white women, the opposite occurs because of their education level. Vertical segregation behavior indicates that white men continue over-represented in higher-paid occupations. Although women improved their relative position in the occupational hierarchy, horizontal segregation behavior shows that their concentration in female-dominated occupations has not reduced, except in extreme quantiles. Education played a crucial role in reducing wage gaps, and regional differences stood out as a significant factor of the racial disadvantage.Originality/valueThe paper shows significant differences between the groups regarding verticalization and horizontalization of occupational structure along the wage distribution and over time, contributing to filling some gaps in the literature concerning the wage stratification based on gender and race in Brazil. Occupational segregation as a composition factor of the groups determines their positions in a vertically hierarchical and socially stratified occupational structure. The behavior of horizontal and vertical segregations evidences the continue under-valorization of female occupations and the barriers faced by racial and gendered groups to overcome the glass ceiling effect. Recognize the intersectionality of gender and race in addressing inequalities is fundamental to promote policies that overcome them.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of changes in the relative composition and in the segmentation between formal and informal labour on earnings differentials among women over the last decade in Brazil. Design/methodology/approach The authors follow Machado and Mata’s method to decompose the changes along the earnings distribution, with correction for sample selection and using microdata from the Demographic Census of 2000 and 2010. Informal labour was divided into informal salaried labour and self-employment, and both groups were compared with the formal labour separately. Findings The results indicate that, in both cases, an increase in earnings differentials in the bottom of the earnings distribution due to segmentation, suggesting that the returns to formal labour have grown relatively to informal labour during the period. On the other hand, earnings differentials decrease as one moves up the earnings distribution due to the composition effect, which is stronger on the top of the distribution relatively to the bottom. Furthermore, there are compensating differentials for self-employed women above the 30th quantile, which contributed to reduce the inequality between this group and formal workers. Originality/value The paper contributes to a better understanding of the changes taking place in female labour, shedding some light on how they affect different points along the earnings distribution. Furthermore, the adopted approach proposes a new application for the correction of sample bias in the context of quantile regression by employing a logit multinomial, and using the Demographic Census data.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to discuss recent dynamics of the Brazilian labour market, by analysing occupational mobility patterns, specially the transitions between formal and informal labour, and verify the earnings mobility resulting from these transitions, separately by gender. Design/methodology/approach The changes in the mobility patterns are analysed by performing an estimation of the transition probabilities between different occupational status between 2002 and 2012, using a multinomial logit model and the microdata from the Monthly Employment Survey (PME). The earnings mobility is analysed by using quantile regressions. Findings The results indicate a high degree of mobility from unemployment to formal employment in the period but suggest the persistence of mobility patterns. Women are better off in the period, but only among individuals with better attributes. The earnings mobility results, for women and men, suggest an increase in valuation of the formal labour relatively to informality (informal salaried employment and self-employment), especially at the bottom of the earnings distribution. Originality/value The paper contributes to a better understanding of recent changes in occupational mobility patterns between formal and informal labour and the earnings mobility underlying these patterns, accounting for the differences along the earnings distribution and gender issues. That is, it allows identify which groups of workers benefited more from the formalisation process to infer about trends in formal–informal dynamics over the period and discuss the challenges in conducting policies to promote inclusive and quality employment.

RESUMO Este artigo decompõe as mudanças nos diferenciais de rendimentosentre trabalho formal e informalna última década no Brasil, entre efeitos de composição e de segmentação, separadamente por gênero. São utilizados os microdados dos Censos Demográficos de 2000 e 2010, e o método de Machado e Mata (2005) para a decomposição ao longo da distribuição de rendimentos, com correção de seleção amostral. Para mulheres e homens, verificou-se que o efeito de segmentação contribuiu para aumentar a vantagem de rendimentos para o trabalho formal na base da distribuição, enquanto que o efeito de composição contribuiu para reduzir esses diferenciais ao longo de toda a distribuição, sendo, no entanto, maior no topo do que na base da distribuição de rendimentos. Contudo, verificou-se diferenças importantes por gênero quanto ao nível e variação desses componentes no período e ao longo da distribuição. O nível de desigualdade é maior entre as mulheres do que entre os homens, sendo o efeito de segmentação ainda mais grave para o trabalho informal feminino na base da distribuição. Por outro lado, a redução no efeito de composição se mostrou superior entre as mulheres ao longo de toda a distribuição, acarretando em uma queda do diferencial total a partir do 30º quantil maior para o trabalho feminino, ainda que este permaneça inferior para o trabalho masculino. ABSTRACT This paper decomposes the changes in the earnings differentials between formal and informal labor over the last decade in Brazil, between composition and segmentation effects, separately by gender. We use microdata from the Demographic Census of 2000 and 2010 and follow Machado and Mata’s (2010) method to decompose the changes along the earnings distribution with correction for sample selection. For women and men, the segmentation effect contributed to increase the earnings advantage to formal labor at the bottom of the earnings distribution, while the composition effect contributed by decreasing these differentials along the earnings distribution, but this effect is higher at the top than the bottom of the distribution. However, there are important differences by gender in the level and variation of these components over the period and along the earnings distribution. Inequality level is higher among women than among men, and the segmentation effect is more severe for female informal labor at the bottom of the distribution. On the other hand, the reduction in the composition effect along the earnings distribution was higher among women than among men, resulting in a decrease of the total differential, from the 30th quantil, higher for the female labor, although this differential remains lower for the male labor.

Este trabalho examina os efeitos das mudanças na composição relativa e na segmentação entre trabalho formal e por conta própria sobre a desigualdade de rendimentos entre 2000 e 2010, separadamente por gênero. Utilizam-se os microdados dos Censos demográficos e o método de Machado e Mata para a decomposição dos diferenciais a partir de regressões quantílicas, com correção de seleção amostral. Para homens e mulheres, verifica-se um aumento dos diferenciais na base da distribuição de rendimentos, em razão do efeito de segmentação, sugerindo uma valorização relativa do trabalho formal. Contudo, observa-se uma redução progressiva dos diferenciais a partir do 25o quantil, devida ao efeito de composição, que também é amenizado pela maior valorização relativa do trabalho por conta própria no topo da distribuição de rendimentos. Ademais, há diferenças importantes por gênero quanto ao nível e variação desses componentes no período e ao longo da distribuição de rendimentos. This paper examines the effects of changes in the relative composition and segmentation between formal employment and self-employment on earnings inequality between 2000 and 2010, separately by gender. We use microdata from Demographic Census and the method of Machado and Mata for the decomposition of differentials, from the quantile regressions with correction of sample selection. For men and women, there is an increase in the differential at the bottom of the earnings distribution, due to the segmentation effect, suggesting a relative appreciation of the formal employment. However, there is a progressive reduction in the differentials, from the 25o quantile, due to the composition effect, which is also mitigated by greater relative appreciation of the self-employment at the top of the distribution. Furthermore, there are important differences by gender in the level and variation of these components in the period and along the earnings distribution.

O mercado de trabalho brasileiro experimentou importantes mudanças ao longo dos anos 2000, apresentando uma contra tendência em relação à década anterior, com uma queda significativa da taxa de informalidade associada ao ritmo de expansão do emprego formal. Além disso, mudanças relacionadas ao perfil da força de trabalho também exerceram efeitos sobre a composição da população ocupada. O aumento da escolaridade reduz a desigualdade na medida que diminui a heterogeneidade entre os trabalhadores formais e informais, contudo, pode ter efeitos distintos sobre os trabalhadores nos diferentes pontos da distribuição dos rendimentos. A valorização do salário mínimo pode, por um lado, aumentar a segmentação do mercado de trabalho na base da distribuição e provocar um aumento da desigualdade entre trabalho formal e informal, mas por outro argumenta-se que, se a valorização do salário mínimo tem efeito sobre os rendimentos dos trabalhadores informais, então haveria uma redução da desigualdade. Diante de tais transformações surge a necessidade de um reposicionamento da discussão acerca da dinâmica formal-informal do mercado de trabalho brasileiro. A partir do uso dos dados dos Censos Demográficos de 2000 e 2010 e do método de decomposição de Machado e Mata por regressões quantílicas, corrigidas para o viés de seleção amostral, constatou-se um aumento da desigualdade entre trabalhadores formais e informais na base da distribuição dos rendimentos, em razão do aumento do efeito de segmentação no mercado de trabalho, sugerindo uma valorização do emprego formal nos estratos de renda mais baixos, e uma redução progressiva da desigualdade ao longo da distribuição devida às mudanças na composição relativa entre os grupos, sendo estas mais relevantes no topo do que na base na distribuição. Contudo, verificou-se diferenças importantes entre emprego assalariado sem carteira e trabalho por conta própria relativamente ao emprego formal, assim como por gênero, quanto à importância e variação desses componentes ao longo da distribuição. Utilizando os dados da Pesquisa Mensal de Emprego (PME) para o período de 2002 a 2012 e estimando as probabilidades de transição entre os diferentes status ocupacionais, constatou-se um alto grau de mobilidade do desemprego para o emprego formal no período, porém os resultados sugerem a persistência de padrões de mobilidade na medida em que as probabilidades de transição para a formalidade, a partir de qualquer status de origem, são significativamente maiores para os indivíduos com melhores atributos. A mobilidade de rendimentos resultante dessas transições ratifica a valorização do emprego formal relativamente à informalidade, sobretudo nos estratos mais baixos da distribuição dos rendimentos. Nesse sentido, conclui-se que a redução dos diferenciais ao longo dos quantis, principalmente nos superiores, pode ser justificada em grande medida pela melhora relativa nos atributos dos trabalhadores informais, em especial no nível de escolaridade, do que em razão de mudanças nos padrões de mobilidade ocupacional, e que a formalização representa uma saída à precariedade especialmente para os trabalhadores nos estratos de renda mais baixos. A diversidade quanto às mudanças observadas na dinâmica formal-informal do mercado de trabalho na última década, ressaltam os desafios inerentes à eliminação da precariedade do trabalho no Brasil. The Brazilian labor market has experienced important changes over the 2000s presenting a contrary trend from the previous decade, with a significant decrease of informality rate associated to the rate of expansion of the formal employment. Moreover, changes related to the profile of the labor force also hat effects on the composition of the employed population. The increase of education reduces inequality since it reduces the heterogeneity between formal and informal workers, however, may have different effects on workers in different points of the earnings distribution. The appreciation of the minimum wage may increasing segmentation of the labor market at the bottom of earnings distribution and cause an increase in the gap between formal and informal work. On the other hand, it is argues that if the value of the minimum wage takes effect on the earnings of informal workers, then there would be a reduction in this gap. Faced with these changes comes the need for a repositioning of the discussion about the formal-informal dynamics of the Brazilian labor market. Using the data from the Demographic Census 2000 and 2010 and the decomposition method of Machado and Mata by quantile regression, adjusted for sample selection bias, it was found an increase in the gap between formal and informal workers at the bottom of earnings distribution due to the growth of segmentation effect and a progressive reduction in the gap along the distribution due to the changes in the relative composition between the groups, which were most relevant at the top than at the bottom distribution. However, there are important differences between salaried employment without registration and self-employment relatively to the formal employment as well as by gender concerning the importance and variation of these components along the distribution. Using data from the Monthly Employment Survey (PME) for the period 2002 to 2012 and estimating the probabilities of transition between different occupational status, it was found a high degree of mobility from unemployment to formal employment in the period, but the results suggest the persistence of mobility patterns since the transition probabilities for the formality from any source status is significantly greater for individuals with better attributes. The resulting earnings mobility of these transitions confirms the appreciation of formal employment relatively to informality, especially in the lower quantiles of earnings distribution. In this sense, it is concluded that the reduction in the gaps over the quantiles, mainly on the upper, can be justified largely by the relative improvement in the attributes of informal workers, especially in the education level, than because of changes in patterns occupational mobility, and that formalization is an exit to the precariousness especially for workers in the lower income strata. The diversity of the changes observed in the formal-informal dynamics of the labor market in the last decade highlights the challenges inherent to the elimination of job precariousness in Brazil.