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I dette kapittelet sammenlikner vi organisatoriske utfordringer knyttet til norsk og svensk forvaltning av dyrevelferd. Norge og Sverige prioriterer begge dyrevelferd, har omfattende dyrevelferdslovgivning på plass og er underlagt de samme EU-forpliktelsene på dyrevelferdsområdet (Sverige som EU-medlem, Norge som del av EØS). I Norge er ansvaret for dyrevelferd plassert i ett statlig tilsyn – Mattilsynet. Dette tilsynet har ansvar for inspeksjoner over hele landet, både i slakterier og hos dyreholdere, og har videre ansvar for å utarbeide og komme med forslag om nytt regelverk. Sverige har en forvaltningstradisjon med større autonomi lagt til fagmyndighetene. Ansvaret for dyrevelferd er fordelt på to sentrale statlige fagmyndigheter – Livsmedelsverket og Jordbruksverket – og på 21 regionale statlige myndigheter (länsstyrelser). I dette kapittelet viser vi hvordan slike forskjeller i organisering kan få konsekvenser for en koordinert og konsistent forvaltning av dyrevelferdslovgivningen.

Simple Summary Cleanliness is important for the health and welfare of cattle, but also for farm profitability, as dirtiness increases the risk of sick animals and can compromise milk and meat production. Swedish legislation states that all animals must be ‘clean enough’, but dirty cattle are commonly recorded in official inspections in Sweden. This study investigated the reasons for dirtiness and how inspectors handle cases of dirty cattle. Of the 371 cattle farms inspected, 49% had dirty cattle. However, the inspectors did not categorize all farms with dirty cattle as non-compliant, mainly using the argument that only a few animals were dirty. Therefore, in addition to knowing what characterizes ‘clean enough’ cattle, both inspectors and farmers need better guidance on when a farm is compliant, or non-compliant, with animal welfare legislation. Dirtiness in cattle was found to depend mainly on management routines on the farm, which is a promising result since routines can be improved. Abstract Dirty cattle have been commonly recorded in official animal welfare inspections in Sweden for years. The relevant authorities have initiated work to better understand the causes of dirty cattle, in order to improve compliance and standardize the grounds for categorizing a farm as non-compliant with welfare legislation when dirty animals are present. This study investigated the occurrence of dirty cattle in official animal welfare controls, on Swedish cattle farms, and examined farmers’ views on the reasons for non-compliance and on key factors in keeping animals clean. The data used were collected by animal welfare inspectors at the county level during the regular official inspections of 371 dairy and beef cattle farms over two weeks in winter 2020. In addition to completing the usual inspection protocol, the inspectors asked farmers a set of questions relating to why their animals were clean or dirty. Dirty cattle were found on 49% of the farms inspected, but only 33% of the farms were categorized as being non-compliant with Swedish welfare legislation. According to inspectors and farmers, dirtiness in cattle depends mainly on management routines, which is a promising result since routines can be improved. The results also revealed a need for better guidance for inspectors and farmers on when dirtiness should be categorized as non-compliance with animal welfare legislation.

This study focuses on investigating how students make use of their bodily experiences in combination with infrared (IR) cameras, as a way to make meaning in learning about heat, temperature, and friction. A class of 20 primary students (age 7–8 years), divided into three groups, took part in three IR camera laboratory experiments. The qualitative analysis focuses on one group of students (n = 9) based on audio recordings and field notes that were taken by the teacher during one lesson as well as during a follow-up group interview. Findings include that students manage to conceptualize heat as a process, and using the IR camera serves as a shared point of attention in visual and verbal communication. In conclusion, the study shows how students make use of different resources, in combination with and without the IR camera, as a way to make meaning of the physical concepts of heat, temperature, and friction.

In the field of animal welfare science focus has traditionally been on the risk factors for, and prevention of, animal welfare problems. More recently, the topic of measuring animal welfare at the individual level or at the group level has attracted substantial attention among animal welfare scientists. Furthermore, research into the content and structure of various regulations—including both official legislation and private standards—and their effects on animal welfare outcomes is growing. However, the amount of research related to compliance with animal welfare regulations is still extremely limited. In this review, we aim at illuminating the concept of compliance, how it can be measured within different audit systems, and the scientific challenges encountered when comparing different regulations in terms of compliance. In addition, we analyse and discuss different drivers for compliance, as well as the obstacles and complications in relation to various inspection and follow-up approaches in cases of non-compliance. We conclude that if participation in voluntary private animal welfare schemes is to be used as one of the variables when applying a risk-based approach to official animal welfare control, then the methods of measuring and accounting for compliance within such schemes must be clearly reported.

The domestic cat ( Felis silvestris catus ) originates from the solitary living African wildcat ( Felis silvestris lybica ). However, through domestication, the domestic cat has become more social towards conspecifics and group housing of cats is common, for example in cat shelters in some countries. In Sweden the animal welfare legislation allows the keeping of up to 15 adult cats in the same room. However, keeping several cats in a small area may increase the level of conflicts between the cats and the social stress. In this study we examined the social and spatial behaviour in large groups of cats, as well as stress related body postures (using the Cat-Stress-Score) and if there were any changes within a stable group of 15 cats kept at different floor areas (1m 2 , 2m 2 and 4m 2 per cat). Cats in the study were collected as groups from two shelters and housed in a research facility. Cats from different shelters and groups were never mixed. Cats performed more solitary play ( p =0.0016) and moved more between different resources ( p =0.03) in the largest floor area. Based on our results we conclude that increasing the area for group housed cats promote more play and general activity. Play can be an indicator of positive welfare for the cats.

In this study the animal welfare legislation and three private standards in Sweden, focusing on dairy cows, were analysed. The aim was to investigate to what extent these regulations consisted of resource-, management- or animal-based requirements, to analyse the content and discuss consequences. The results showed a higher proportion of management- and resource-based requirements than animal-based in all regulations. However, the borders between these categories were not as distinct as expected. The private standards put slightly more emphasis on the animal-based requirements and on animal welfare at herd level. It was primarily the organic standard that included higher animal welfare demands than the legislation. Due to vague wording and guideline statements it was not always clear if the welfare level achieved would be the same in practice although the requirements were similar. It will be necessary to clearly distinguish between requirements and measures to make the policy process more transpa...

Simple Summary In all European countries, farmers keeping animals must comply with European and national animal welfare legislation. Each government has a responsibility to make sure that the legislation is complied with by the farmers. However, during the last decades it has become increasingly common that private organisations, such as the industry, farmers’ organisations, or animal welfare organisations, develop additional animal welfare regulations (‘private standards’) that the farmers also need to comply with. These private standards have the opportunity to improve animal welfare above the legislative level, however, in our study we have shown that this is not always the case and that all of these different private standards, in addition to the legislation, makes it difficult to get an overview of the animal welfare regulation and control arena. For the sake of the farmers, the animal welfare inspectors, the consumers, and the animals we conclude that it is important that policymakers consider this arena as a whole and not their own regulation as a single phenomenon. Abstract The current shift moves the governance of animal welfare away from the government towards the private market and the consumers. We have studied the intentions, content, and on-farm inspection results from different sets of animal welfare legislation and private standards with an aim to highlight the most important opportunities and risks identified in relation to the trend of increasingly relying on private standards for safeguarding or improving farm animal welfare. Our results show that different focuses, intentions, animal welfare requirements, inspection methods (i.e., methods for measuring and evaluating the compliance with a regulation), and inspection results, together with the use of vague wordings and a drive towards more flexible regulations does certainly not facilitate the interpretation and implementation of animal welfare regulations, especially not in relation to each other. Since farmers today often have to comply with several animal welfare regulations, including private standards, it is important to stress that a given regulation should never be seen as a single, stand-alone phenomenon, and the policymakers must hence consider the bigger picture, and apply the standards in relation to other existing regulations. This is especially relevant in relation to the legislation, a level that a private standard can never ignore.

Multiple sclerosis, the most common cause of progressive neurological disability in young adults, is a chronic inflammatory disease. There is solid evidence for a genetic influence in multiple sclerosis, and deciphering the causative genes could reveal key pathways influencing the disease. A genome region on rat chromosome 9 regulates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a model for multiple sclerosis. Using interval-specific congenic rat lines and association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms with inflammatory phenotypes, we localized the gene of influence to Vav1 , which codes for a signal-transducing protein in leukocytes. Analysis of seven human cohorts (12,735 individuals) demonstrated an association of rs2546133-rs2617822 haplotypes in the first VAV1 intron with multiple sclerosis (CA: odds ratio, 1.18; CG: odds ratio, 0.86; TG: odds ratio, 0.90). The risk CA haplotype also predisposed for higher VAV1 messenger RNA expression. VAV1 expression was increased in individuals with multiple sclerosis and correlated with tumor necrosis factor and interferon-γ expression in peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid cells. We conclude that VAV1 plays a central role in controlling central nervous system immune-mediated disease and proinflammatory cytokine production critical for disease pathogenesis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex disorder of the central nervous system, causing inflammation, demyelination and axonal damage. A limited number of genetic risk factors for MS have been identified, but the etiology of the disease remains largely unknown. For the identification of genes regulating neuroinflammation we used a rat model of MS, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), and carried out a linkage analysis in an advanced intercross line (AIL). We thereby redefine the Eae18b locus to a 0.88 Mb region, including a cluster of chemokine genes. Further, we show differential expression of Ccl2, Ccl11 and Ccl11 during EAE in rat strains with opposite susceptibility to EAE, regulated by genotype in Eae18b. The human homologous genes were tested for association to MS in 3841 cases and 4046 controls from four Nordic countries. A haplotype in CCL2 and rs3136682 in CCL1 show a protective association to MS, whereas a haplotype in CCL13 is disease predisposing. In the HLA-DRB1* 15 positive subgroup, we also identified an association to a risk haplotype in CCL2, suggesting an influence from the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) locus. We further identified association to rheumatoid arthritis in CCL2, CCL8 and CCL13, indicating common regulatory mechanisms for complex diseases.

"Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the 30 region of myosin IXB (MYO9B) gene have recently been reported to associate with different inflammatory or autoimmune diseases. We monitored for the association of MYO9B variants to multiple sclerosis (MS) in four Northern European populations. First, 18 SNPs including 6 SNPs with previous evidence for association to immune disorders, were tested in 730 Finnish MS families, but no linkage or family-based association was observed. To ensure the power to detect variants with a modest effect size, we further analyzed 10 variants in 899 Finnish cases and 1325 controls, and in a total of 1521 cases and 1476 controls from Denmark, Norway and Sweden, but found no association. Our results thereby do not support a major function of the tested MYO9B variants in MS. European Journal of Human Genetics (2009) 17, 840-843; doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2008.251; published online 14 January 2009" "Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the 30 region of myosin IXB (MYO9B) gene have recently been reported to associate with different inflammatory or autoimmune diseases. We monitored for the association of MYO9B variants to multiple sclerosis (MS) in four Northern European populations. First, 18 SNPs including 6 SNPs with previous evidence for association to immune disorders, were tested in 730 Finnish MS families, but no linkage or family-based association was observed. To ensure the power to detect variants with a modest effect size, we further analyzed 10 variants in 899 Finnish cases and 1325 controls, and in a total of 1521 cases and 1476 controls from Denmark, Norway and Sweden, but found no association. Our results thereby do not support a major function of the tested MYO9B variants in MS. European Journal of Human Genetics (2009) 17, 840-843; doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2008.251; published online 14 January 2009" "Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the 30 region of myosin IXB (MYO9B) gene have recently been reported to associate with different inflammatory or autoimmune diseases. We monitored for the association of MYO9B variants to multiple sclerosis (MS) in four Northern European populations. First, 18 SNPs including 6 SNPs with previous evidence for association to immune disorders, were tested in 730 Finnish MS families, but no linkage or family-based association was observed. To ensure the power to detect variants with a modest effect size, we further analyzed 10 variants in 899 Finnish cases and 1325 controls, and in a total of 1521 cases and 1476 controls from Denmark, Norway and Sweden, but found no association. Our results thereby do not support a major function of the tested MYO9B variants in MS. European Journal of Human Genetics (2009) 17, 840-843; doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2008.251; published online 14 January 2009"

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic, often disabling, disease of the central nervous system affecting more than 1 in 1,000 people in most western countries. The inflammatory lesions typical of multiple sclerosis show autoimmune features and depend partly on genetic factors. Of these genetic factors, only the HLA gene complex has been repeatedly confirmed to be associated with multiple sclerosis, despite considerable efforts. Polymorphisms in a number of non-HLA genes have been reported to be associated with multiple sclerosis, but so far confirmation has been difficult. Here, we report compelling evidence that polymorphisms in IL7R, which encodes the interleukin 7 receptor alpha chain (IL7Ralpha), indeed contribute to the non-HLA genetic risk in multiple sclerosis, demonstrating a role for this pathway in the pathophysiology of this disease. In addition, we report altered expression of the genes encoding IL7Ralpha and its ligand, IL7, in the cerebrospinal fluid compartment of individuals with multiple sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neurological disease affecting the central nervous system (CNS). The disease is characterised by demyelination and axonal loss caused by abnormal immunological responses resulting in accumulating neurological disabilities. MS is considered a complex disease, with both genetic and environmental factors contributing to the pathogenesis. In this study, we have investigated the genetic role of the myeloperoxidase (MPO) gene encoding myeloperoxidase in MS. MPO is an enzyme found in myeloid cells which catalyses the production of hypochlorus acid, a potent microbicidal agent. It also plays an important role in inflammatory processes, where migrating neutrophiles may release active MPO and cause tissue damage. In this study, we investigated two polymorphisms located in the promotor region of the MPO gene, known to influence the expression of MPO, in a large case/control material consisting of 871 Swedish MS patients and 532 Swedish healthy controls. No association was observed with risk of MS. Multiple Sclerosis 2007; 13: 697-700. http://msj.sagepub.com

We have investigated the genetic involvement of the CD4 and the LAG3 genes, two appealing candidates for MS due to their suggested role in MS pathology. We genotyped a Swedish case-control material consisting of 920 MS patients and 778 controls in an initial study of CD4, three SNPs showed a significant association with MS. An independent material consisting of 1720 Nordic MS patients and 1416 controls were used for confirmation of associated markers in CD4 and to do a confirmative study of the LAG3 gene from previous findings. The result, including a total of 2640 MS patients and 2194 controls shows no significant association with CD4 and LAG3 and MS. We conclude that these genes are of minor importance in regard of genetic predisposition to the MS.

Recently, several non-HLA loci have been shown to be convincingly associated with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) susceptibility, assumingly indicating important pathways in the pathogenesis. A genotype influence on disease outcome measures by these genes would support a role of these pathways in ongoing tissue damage. Here, however, we report a consistent dissociation between causation and progression for five non-HLA genotypes (IL7R, IL2RA, CLEC16A, CD226 and SH2B3) in 1776 Scandinavian MS patients.

The project ‘Legal systems and ethical values behind the official and the stakeholder-based animal welfare control’ covers studies of farm animal welfare legislation and ten private animal welfare standards from four European countries. Their expressed aim of prevention of suffering is in focus. Many pieces of legislation stating the aim of preventing ‘unnecessary suffering’ lack a clear distinction between ‘unnecessary’ and ‘necessary’ calling for definitions, as it is difficult to decide where to draw the line in actual farming, or for a citizen to interpret what is regarded acceptable by the legislator. Several interpretations are possible, e.g. the intensity and duration of the suffering, the intention behind the act, the fulfillment of human interests and the animals’ interests. Furthermore, countries differ regarding what species are legally protected and at what level. We will further discuss ethical values behind such differences. Painful management procedures are legal in many countries, and hence regarded as ‘necessary suffering’ in some –but not all – countries. As private standards are developed to meet consumer demands for a stricter interpretation of ‘unnecessary’ it is important to clarify inherent values. We tentatively argue that besides utilitarian ethical thinking duty, contractarian and/or virtue ethical thinking can be found in both legislation and private standards. If so, this mirrors consumer interest in an integrated and complex reasoning related to the concept of ‘unnecessary suffering’, a complexity that needs to be considered in forthcoming legislation.

Large case–control genome-wide association studies primarily expose common variants contributing to disease pathogenesis with modest effects. Thus, alternative strategies are needed to tackle rare, possibly more penetrant alleles. One strategy is to use special populations with a founder effect and isolation, resulting in allelic enrichment. For multiple sclerosis such a unique setting is reported in Southern Ostrobothnia in Finland, where the prevalence and familial occurrence of multiple sclerosis (MS) are exceptionally high. Here, we have studied one of the best replicated MS loci, 5p, and monitored for haplotypes shared among 72 regional MS cases, the majority of which are genealogically distantly related. The haplotype analysis over the 45 Mb region, covering the linkage peak identified in Finnish MS families, revealed only modest association at IL7R (P = 0.04), recently implicated in MS, whereas most significant association was found with one haplotype covering the C7-FLJ40243 locus (P = 0.0001), 5.1 Mb centromeric of IL7R. The finding was validated in an independent sample from the isolate and resulted in an odds ratio of 2.73 (P = 0.000003) in the combined data set. The identified relatively rare risk haplotype contains C7 (complement component 7), an important player of the innate immune system. Suggestive association with alleles of the region was seen also in more heterogeneous populations. Interestingly, also the complement activity correlated with the identified risk haplotype. These results suggest that the MS predisposing locus on 5p is more complex than assumed and exemplify power of population isolates in the identification of rare disease alleles.

IL7 is a nonredundant cytokine, essential for T cell survival and development in humans. We genotyped nine tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), representing all parts of the IL7 gene, in 1210 Swedish multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and 1234 healthy controls. None of the SNPs showed a significantly different distribution in MS, and haplotype analysis also failed to reveal differences between patients and controls. We conclude that the IL7 gene is very unlikely to influence the genetic susceptibility to MS in this population.

There is a movement away from government governance of farm animal welfare towards more private governance. As a result, many farmers need to comply with both legislation and private standards simultaneously. The overall aim with this project was to study the intentions of different animal welfare regulations, and how effective these systems can be in improving animal welfare. The first study examined the intentions and values of various animal welfare regulations. The second study analysed the content and structure of different sets of Swedish regulations, and the last study focused on controls at the farm level, to identify common remarks and risk factors of non-compliance at dairy farms in official (CAB) and private (Arla) control. We found that the aim of a regulation could be quite vague, and more ambitious than what is included in the detailed requirements. Policymakers had different views on what constitutes ‘necessary suffering’ and ‘natural behaviour’. These differences were seen both between countries, between regulations in a country, and between species in a regulation. The second study illustrated that private standards for dairy cows in Sweden partly covered the same requirements as the legislation, with the exception of the organic standard. However, due to vague wordings and different ways of measuring it was not always clear if the requirements were truly identical between the regulations. In the third study we identified that inspections focused on different areas; dirty dairy cattle being the most common non-compliance in official controls, and dirty cowsheds being most common during Arla audits. The highest risk for non-compliance was, however, similar for CAB and Arla; tie-stalls during winter. Organic farms had a lower risk for non-compliance compared to conventional farms. This project identified the need to clearly define concepts and desired animal welfare outcomes in order to reduce the gaps between intentions, requirements and assessments within a regulation. Also gaps between different animal welfare regulations need to be illuminated with the purpose of either clarifying the differences or reducing the gaps provided that the aims are similar. The presence of both similarities and differences between different regulations and control systems puts extra high demands on transparency, predictability and clarity during inspections.