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In this study we used an analytical approach based on complementary techniques that targets all structural levels of collagen in leather to investigate how vegetable-tanned leather deteriorates during soil burial tests. For the first time, a group of deterioration markers specific to molecular, fibrillar and fibrous structure of collagen in leather was associated with the deterioration of buried leather. The application of the second order derivative of FTIR-ATR spectra analysis allowed us to detect loosening of collagen–tannin matrix, de-tanning and gelatin formation based on the behaviour of collagen and tannin spectral components (intensity variation and shifts). Collagen denaturation observed by DSC analysis and its thermo-oxidative behaviour measured by TG/DTG analysis, as well as the altered morphology of collagen (namely melt-like fibres and distorted fibrillar ultrastructure) imaged by SEM confirmed the FTIR-ATR analyis results. These analytical outcomes enabled us to understand the effect of leather hardening/cementing through soil mineral penetration into its fibrous structure and thus correctly interprete the higher-than-expected shrinkage temperatures and intervals determinatd by MHT method. Thus, MHT method proved to be suitable for a quick evaluation method that can direcly support the first conservation decision after excavation. The combination of FTIR-ATR, DSC, TG/DTG and SEM can be particularly useful to provide insights on the deterioration mechanism of archaeological leather and support best decision on its long-term preservation.

The present work reports a laboratory study on the asphalt binder diffusion with reference to the hot asphalt recycling. Generally, in diffusion-related studies on asphalt binder either artificial...

A universal method for quantitative analysis of clay components, in terms of mineral composition, using ATR-FT-IR spectroscopy (in the mid-IR and far-IR regions) combined with partial least squares (PLS) regression technique (ATR-FT-IR-PLS) is reported. For the PLS method development, altogether 222 samples covering natural clay sources and various archaeological/cultural heritage artefacts were used as calibration and validation standards. This is the largest calibration set used for creating an ATR-FT-IR-PLS method for clay minerals. The quantitative compositions of these standards containing combinations of altogether 29 minerals for the PLS method were determined using XRD analysis. The developed ATR-FT-IR with PLS method is quick and easy to use, and enables analysis of very small sample amounts (down to a few mg). This is very important when working with samples from archaeological and cultural heritage objects. The developed ATR-FT-IR-PLS method enables quantifying the contents of 7 main classes of minerals in different clays with a root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) ranging from 0.9 to 5.1 g/100g. This means that in some cases, depending also on the content of the mineral in the sample, the accuracy is at a semiquantitative level. This quantitative method was successfully applied to 11 cultural heritage case-study samples.

The study aims to develop an effective, efficient, and reliable method using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy with Attenuated Total Reflection (ATR) combined with chemometric for identifying the synthetic drug in Indonesian herbal medicine known as Jamu. Jamu powders, Metamizole, and the binary mixture of Jamu and Metamizole were measured using FTIR-ATR at the mid-infrared region (4000-650 cm-1). The obtained spectra profiles were further analyzed by Principal Component Analysis, Partial Least Square Regression, Principal Component Regression, and Discriminant Analysis. Jamu Pegel Linu (JPL), Jamu Encok (JE), Jamu Sakit Pinggang (JSP), Metamizole (M), and adulterated Jamu by Metamizole were discriminated well on PCA score plot. PLSR and PCR showed the accuracy and precision data to quantify JPL, JE, and JSP, and each adulterated by M with R2 value > 0,995 and low value of RMSEC and RMSEP. Discriminant Analysis (DA) was successfully grouping Jamu and Metamizole without any misclassification. A combination of FTIR spectroscopy and chemometrics offered useful tools for detecting Metamizole in traditional herbal medicine.

The global fight against mosquito-borne viral diseases has in recent years been bolstered by the introduction of the endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia to vector populations, which in host mosquitoes suppresses the transmissibility of several viruses. Researchers engaged on this front of the battle often need to know the Wolbachia infection status of individual mosquitoes, as the intervention progresses and the mosquitoes become established in the target population. Previously, we successfully applied attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to the detection of Wolbachia in adult Aedes aegypti mosquitoes; here we apply the same principles to Aedes eggs, with sensitivity and selectivity > 0.95. Further, we successfully distinguish between infections in eggs of the wMel and wMelPop strains of Wolbachia pipientis, with a classification error of 3% . The disruption of host lipid profile by Wolbachia is found to be a key driver in spectral differences between these sample classes.

Control of the fat crystallization process is essential to the quality of chocolate bars. The crystallization proceeds in a mold, which would induce a specific inhomogeneous structure within a choc...

This study aimed to ferment wheat grain by optimised bacteria, yeast and fungal fermentations. Crude protein, tannin, phytic acid and lactic acid contents of samples taken at 24 h intervals determined by chemical methods were compared with those of infrared (IR) spectro-chemometry. Secondary protein components were further quantified with IR spectra deconvolution method. The results indicated that some fermentations increased crude protein of wheat, whilst its tannin and phytic acid degraded in all fermentations. Wheat enriched with lactic acid content in all fermentations. FT-IR spectroscopic method accurately (99.99% of recovery) and precisely (regression coefficient of prediction R2 = 0.999, P

This work studies the different materials used in the production of Argentine postage stamps from 1888 to 2016 and explains how the use of these materials has changed over time, thus contributing t...

Body fluid traces can provide highly valuable clues in forensic investigations. In particular, bloodstains are a common occurrence in criminal investigation, and the discrimination of menstrual and peripheral blood is a crucial step for casework involving rape and sexual assault. Most of the current protocols require the detection of characteristic menstrual blood components using sophisticated procedures that need to be performed in a laboratory. The present study uses attenuated total reflection Fourier transform-infrared (ATR FT-IR) spectroscopy as a nondestructive technique for discriminating menstrual and peripheral blood traces. This method incorporates statistical analysis and was evaluated by internal and external validation testing. A partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLSDA) classification model was created for differentiating the two types of blood in a binary manner. Excellent separation between menstrual and peripheral blood samples was achieved during internal validation. External validation resulted in 100% accuracy for predicting a sample as peripheral or menstrual blood. This study demonstrates that ATR FT-IR spectroscopy combined with chemometrics is a reliable approach for rapid and nondestructive discrimination of menstrual and peripheral bloodstains. It offers a significant advantage to forensic science due to the availability of portable instruments and the potential for bloodstain analysis at a crime scene. Graphical abstract.

The whitening of wood adjacent to metal components is commonly observed in historic Japanese architecture. A field investigation of the Old Iwasaki-ke Suehiro-bettei Villa led the researchers to be...

Collagen is the main structural and most abundant protein in the human body, and it is routinely extracted and analysed in scientifc archaeology. Its degree of preservation is, therefore, crucial and several approaches are used to determine it. Spectroscopic techniques provide a cost-efective, non-destructive method to investigate the molecular structure, especially when combined with multivariate statistics (chemometric approach). In this study, we used FTIR-ATR spectroscopy to characterise collagen extracted from skeletons recovered from necropoleis in NW Spain spanning from the Bronze Age to eighteenth century AD. Principal components analysis was performed on a selection of bands and structural equation models (SEM) were developed to relate the collagen quality indicators to collagen structural change. Four principal components represented: (i) Cp1, transformations of the backbone protein with a residual increase in proteoglycans; (ii) Cp2, protein transformations not accompanied by changes in proteoglycans abundance; (iii) Cp3, variations in aliphatic side chains and (iv) Cp4, absorption of the OH of carbohydrates and amide. Highly explanatory SEM models were obtained for the traditional collagen quality indicators (collagen yield, C, N, C:N), but no relationship was found between quality and δ13C and δ15N ratios. The observed decrease in C and N content and increase in C:N ratios is controlled by the degradation of protein backbone components and the relative preservation of carbon-rich compounds, proteoglycans and, to a lesser extent, aliphatic moieties. Our results suggest that FTIR-ATR is an ideal technique for collagen characterization/pre-screening for palaeodiet, mobility and radiocarbon research., Project "Galician Paleodiet" ED481D 2017/014, Consiliencia network ED 431D2017/08, GPC ED341B 2018/20, "Antropoloxia dos restos oseos humanos de Galicia" (Direccion Xeral de Patrimonio Historico), Xunta de Galicia, Plan Galego I2C mod.B ED481D 2017/014, Instituto de Salud Carlos III Spanish Government PID2019-111683RJ-100

Bovine milk fat (BMF) is considered as high nutritional fat because it contains fatty acids, lipid derivatives, and fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E, and K which are beneficial for human health. As a consequence, the price of BMF is higher among other fats. Fraudulent practices such as substitution or replacement with a lower price of fat and oil such as lard oil (LO) are potential to get more economic benefits. Moreover, lard is a non-halal substance which is prohibited to consume especially for Muslim. Therefore, the development of a rapid and accurate method for authentication of BMF from LO is highly required. The objective of this study was to develop Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and chemometrics of multivariate analysis for detection and quantification of LO in binary mixtures with BMF. Samples were prepared by mixing BMF with adulterant of LO in the concentration range of 0-100% of LO. Each sample was scanned using FTIR attenuated total reflectance (ATR) spectroscopy in three replicates at the wavenumber region of 4000-650 cm-1 . The FTIR spectra of BMF and LO has a different pattern at the wavenumber region of 1510-900 cm-1 . Qualitative chemometrics analysis was performed using discriminant analysis (DA), meanwhile, quantitative chemometrics analysis was carried out using partial least square (PLS) and principal component regression (PCR). Results showed that discriminant analysis using normal FTIR spectra at the wavenumber of 3098-669 cm-1 perfectly classified authentic BMF and adulterated BMF with LO. In addition, PLS calibration of FTIR spectra at the wavenumber combination of 3033-2770 cm-1 and 1510-692 cm-1 using first derivative spectra was chosen for quantification of LO in BMF with a high value of R2 (>0.99) in calibration and validation models and lower RMSEC (0.631) and RMSEP (1.94). It can be concluded that FTIR spectroscopy coupled with chemometrics of discriminant analysis and partial least square considered as a rapid and accurate method for the detection and quantification of lard oil in bovine milk fat.

The detection of gunshot residues (GSR) in skin is important in criminal forensic investigations related with firearms. Conventionally, the procedure is based on the detection of metallic or inorganic residues (IGSR). In this work, we propose attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR FT-IR) hyperspectral microscopy as a complementary and nondestructive technique for detection of organic GSR (OGSR). The spectra were acquired from GSR of three ammunition manufacturers, which were collected from shooter’s hands by the tape-lifting method. Before spectroscopic analysis, a Na–Ca bleach solution was added to all GSR samples on the tape for destroying skin debris. Positive detection of OGSR spectra were achieved by ATR FT-IR hyperspectral microscopy. Spectra show characteristic patterns of nitrate ester compounds which agrees with the propellant chemical composition. Characteristic ATR FT-IR spectral patterns of OGSR were measured from visualized GSR particles demonstrating the potential of ATR FT-IR hyperspectral microscopy.

The 4000–400 cm−1 spectral information obtained by FTIR-ATR for bee pollen samples of different floral origin from various Romanian counties were used to formulate a method for rapid classification...

This paper describes the multi-analytical approach implemented for the study of the oil painting Il Venditore di Cerini made by Antonio Mancini in 1878. The research was carried out to characterize both the original stratigraphy and the alleged non-original varnish on the surface. SEM/EDS analysis showed the presence of pigments already detected in other paintings by Antonio Mancini. Multispectral imaging, DinoLite microscope, and FT-IR ATR spectroscopy revealed significant data regarding the invention of the “graticola” method—a technique implemented by Mancini to respect the proportions of the figures—also proving the presence of an aged layer of non-original shellac on the surface. The yellow/brownish tone of the varnish was hiding the real shapes of the figure, requiring a selective removal of the aged coating. The proposed cleaning systems were chosen among the green chemical alternatives present in the market, aiming at promoting a sustainable development in the Cultural Heritage field. The selection was made according to the Fd parameter of the cleaning systems—which defines the energy from dispersion forces between molecules—in relation to what is defined in the literature as the suitable Fd value for the removal of the shellac. The best-performing green cleaning system proved to be the Polar Varnish Rescue GEL—a gelled acetals mixture developed by YOCOCU APS—for its effectiveness in selectively remove the aged shellac while preserving the integrity of the original stratigraphy.

International audience; The quality control of the chemical composition leaves of Moringa oleifera Lam. is fundamental for the dietary treatment of diseases or for any quantitative study on human nutrition. To highlight the impact of climatic and edaphic factors on the chemical composition of Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves, a multivariate chemometric method, ANOVA (ANalysis Of Variance) Common Dimensions (AComDim) was used to interpret the changes in their Fourier Transform Infrared Attenuated Total Reflectance (FTIR-ATR) spectra. Leaves were collected from five geographical areas of Cameroon, recognized for their climatic and soil diversity. The factor "agroclimatic zone" was the most significant, followed by "month/year" (January, April and September between 2015 and 2017), "year" and "maturity" factors. Three slightly significant interactions between "year" and "agroclimatic zone" or "maturity" or "month/year" were observed. For a given agroclimatic zone, January samples were richer in polysaccharides than April samples which were characterized by a highest amount in proteins and aromatic compounds. The "maturity" factor revealed that young leaves contained fewer proteins and antioxidant compounds. The "year" factor was involved in all significant interactions and confirmed the temporal character of the studied factors. The diversity of climate and soils in Cameroon must be taken into account if a certain typicity of collected Moringa Oleifera leaves, or a constant quality may be assured before their marketing phase in powder form as a dietary supplement.

Although Hom Mali rice is considered the highest quality rice in Thailand, it is susceptible to adulteration and substitution. There is a need for rapid, low-cost and efficient analytical techniques for monitoring the authenticity and geographical origin of Thai Hom Mali rice. In this study, two infrared spectroscopy techniques, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy with attenuated total reflection (FTIR-ATR) and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, were applied and compared for the differentiation of Thai Hom Mali rice from two geographical regions over two production years. The Orthogonal Projections to Latent Structures Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) model, built using spectral data from the benchtop FTIR-ATR, achieved 96.97% and 100% correct classification of the test dataset for each of the production years, respectively. The OPLS-DA model, built using spectral data from the portable handheld NIR, achieved 84.85% and 86.96% correct classification of the test dataset for each of the production years, respectively. Direct NIR analysis of the polished rice grains (i.e., no sample preparation) was determined as reliable for analysis of ground rice samples. FTIR-ATR and NIR spectroscopic analysis both have significant potential as screening tools for the rapid detection of fraud issues related to the geographical origin of Thai Hom Mali rice.

The rational utilization of aerial parts (stem and leaf) of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis ( P. yunnanensis ) is increasingly being studied, due to the growing scarcity of resources. In our study, the geographical origin and cultivation year classification of 662 cultivated P. yunnanensis rhizome, stem and leaf samples from Yuxi, Lijiang and Honghe cities were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) spectra using principal component analysis (PCA), partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), random forest (RF) methods combined with multi-source information fusion strategies. Firstly, samples collected from Honghe procedure among all geographical origins were showed higher consistency by biomass analysis. Besides, the PLS-DA model of leaves part was obtained the better geographical origin classification ability than that of underground part (rhizomes), which demonstrate that leaves can be applied to identify geographical origins of P. yunnanensis effectively. And the geographical origins have a greater influence on the P. yunnanensis samples than the cultivation years. Thirdly, the PLS-DA model based on aerial parts combined with high-level multi-source information fusion strategy and important variables selection method can reach the best classification effect (100%) as same as the models of individual dataset of rhizomes. Our study provides a reference for the rational utilization of aerial parts (stems and leaves) for P. yunnanensis such as in the field of fast and effectively classification researches.

The aim of this work was to use different chemometrics methods to detect cow's milk addition in the buffalo’s milk, through the spectroscopic technique Fourier's Transform Infrared associated with Attenuated Total Reflectance (FTIR-ATR). Preparations were made with increasing levels of cow's milk added to the buffalo's milk, ranging from 0%-100%, totalizing 495 samples. 15 peaks were obtained in the spectral region between 4000 cm-1-600 cm-1 through the FTIR, which were submitted to Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN). The ANN showed up to be more efficient, displaying classification rates of 100% for the reference samples and for most of the groups with the mixture of cow's and buffalo's milk, total classification rate of 95.5% and good prediction with satisfactory correlation and error. The results displayed the potential of the spectroscopic method FTIR-ATR associated with the chemometrics analysis for the detection of the authenticity of buffalo's milk.

An experiment for the calculation of the degree of double bond conversion, after a polymerization reaction, of photopolymerizable liquid monomers using FTIR-ATR spectroscopy is reported. The experi...

The importance of self-stratifying coatings in attaining two layers by one coat application makes it a point of interest to understand the mechanism of self-separating of resins into two distinct layers. Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) is a good analysis method with the facility of real-time monitoring for tracking the position of components during the film formation. The migration of main components of silicon /epoxy as a self-stratifying coating system during film formation is followed on ZnSe and Ge cells as substrates. By following up the spectra of real-time monitoring during the film formation it was found that the mechanism of epoxy chains movement toward surface in a self-stratifying coating can not be diffusion.

A quantitative non-destructive express method of determining fillers —kaolin and chalk— in paper was created using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FT-IR) spectroscopy in the mid-IR and far-IR region (3800–245 cm−1) combined with partial least squares (PLS) data analysis. Altogether, 30 two-component (cellulose pulp + kaolin and cellulose pulp + chalk) reference paper samples with known different filler concentrations and one reference paper sample without any fillers were prepared for calibration and validation. The reference values of filler concentrations in the prepared papers were determined by gravimetric analysis via dry ashing (for establishing accurate concentrations of fillers in paper) and ATR-FT-IR microspectroscopy (for evaluating homogeneity of the papers). Two-component (cellulose pulp + kaolin or cellulose pulp + chalk) PLS models were created with papers of different cellulose types and containing different amounts of fillers. The best model had root mean square errors of prediction (RMSEP) for determining the kaolin or chalk content in the two-component papers of 2.0 and 2.1 g/100 g, respectively. The performance indices were 90.4% and 92.9%, respectively. As a demonstration of practical applicability of the method, different papers from books, journals, etc. were analysed. It was concluded that the developed quantitative method is suitable for non-destructive express analysis of kaolin or chalk in paper.

The ALH-77005 Martian meteorite was found in Allan Hills on Antarctica during the Japanese National Institute of Polar Research (1977-1978) mission. One thin section sample was studied by optical microscopy for microtexture and by FTIR-ATR microscopy for interpretation of biogenic minerals and embedded organic materials. The geochemical data (biogenic elements, δ13C) of ALH-77005 meteorite from literature implementing recent results were compared to terrestrial geological samples. The ALH-77005 has poikilitic textures with coarse pyroxenes and brown olivines, and with recrystallized melt pocket. The coarse-grained minerals do not contain any alteration along the grain boundaries. Melt pocket and vicinity of opaque minerals contain biogenic signatures as filamentous, coccoidal forms of iron-oxidizing bacteria. The biosignatures were determined by 1) coccoidal, filamentous forms, 2) presence of embedded organic material, 3) presence of biogenic minerals, like ferrihydrite, goethite, and hematite. The other signatures for biogenicity of this meteorite are strong negative δ13C, enrichment of Fe, Mn, P, Zn in shock melt support scenario. This study proposes presence of microbial mediation on Mars.

We evaluated the potential application of Fourier-Transformed Infrared spectroscopy using Attenuated Total Reflectance (FTIR-ATR) to characterize and detect adulteration of whey protein concentrate (WPC). Samples were adulterated by substituting WPC by milk whey powder (MWP). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to characterize the spectra. Partial Least Squares (PLS) regressions were applied to model and predict the protein content and the amount in grams of WPC and MWP in the samples. In WPC, Amide I and II bands showed decreasing trend with the protein content of the samples. The carbohydrate region between 1160 and 1000 cm−1 showed spectra with opposite behavior of the Amide bands, evincing the ν C O peak (1030 cm−1) that increases as MWP was added. In PCA, PC1 (64.5%) and PC2 (18.8%) described above 80% of total variance of the spectra. PC1 variance was most influenced by Amide I, II and carbohydrate regions. In all cases, PLS showed low prediction errors, high precision and coefficients of determination of the global fit above 0.99. Therefore, the association of FTIR-ATR spectroscopy with multivariate approaches revealed strong potential to detect adulteration in nutritional supplements and high accuracy to predict simultaneously the protein content and mass of WPC and MWP added.

Forensic investigation of cases involving spray paints requires comparison of paint such as those recovered from graffiti with the references sample seized from the suspect's possession site. This study describes the use of Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FT-IR) spectroscopy for nondestructive analysis of 20 red spray paints of different manufactures, which could be encountered at a crime scene, particularly in case of vandalism. Spray paints could be encountered on a number of different substrates, and therefore, the samples were placed on simulated substrates and were analyzed in order to check the effect of substrates on sample analysis. Results showed that all samples could be successfully differentiated using ATR-FT-IR spectroscopy assisted with principal component analysis. Analysis of spray paints on a paper and fabric substrate resulted in poor spectra and hampered the comparative examination between the spray paint deposited on fabric/paper surface and the control sample. In case of sample deposited on cemented wall, the substrate got scraped out along with the sample and caused interferences in the spectrum. On the other hand, for sample deposited on the floor, gloves, metal, plastic, leather shoes, tile, wood, and hair substrates, all the significant peaks were observed to be present and hence it was concluded that comparative studies can be done between neat spray paint and spray paint deposited on the aforesaid substrates. Additionally, blind validation test was conducted and it resulted in linking the blind samples with the source or origin with 100% accuracy.

With the increased occurrence of plastics in the marine environment, ingestion of microplastics (MPs) by marine invertebrates such as mussels is increasing globally. This study investigated the occurrence of microplastics in mussels sold at supermarkets and wholesalers in Cape Town, South Africa. Soft tissue was extracted from mussels, digested and identified by microscopy and FTIR-ATR. MP filaments (70%) and fragments (30%) were the only types of MPs identified and an average of 0.04 MPs/g soft tissue and 3.8 MPs/mussel recorded. Blue/green (44%) and black/grey (40%), smaller than 2000 μm were the most prominent MPs recorded and the main polymer type was filamentous polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Our results suggest that retail mussels in Cape Town do not contain as high concentrations of MPs when compared to other investigations and routine monitoring of seafood in the country is suggested.

The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has led to substantial infections and mortality around the world. Fast screening and diagnosis are thus crucial for quick isolation and clinical intervention. In this work, we showed that attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FT-IR) can be a primary diagnostic tool for COVID-19 as a supplement to in-use techniques. It requires only a small volume (∼3 μL) of the serum sample and a shorter detection time (several minutes). The distinct spectral differences and the separability between normal control and COVID-19 were investigated using multivariate and statistical analysis. Results showed that ATR-FT-IR coupled with partial least squares discriminant analysis was effective to differentiate COVID-19 from normal controls and some common respiratory viral infections or inflammation, with the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of 0.9561 (95% CI: 0.9071-0.9774). Several serum constituents including, but not just, antibodies and serum phospholipids could be reflected on the infrared spectra, serving as "chemical fingerprints" and accounting for good model performances.

Microplastics (MPs) (

Arbutus unedo spirit is a valuable product in Mediterranean countries. This spirit is usually marketed in Portugal without wood ageing. This work aims to characterize the ageing effect on the Arbutus unedo spirit, for three and six months with oak wood (Quercus robur L.) submitted to different toasting levels, based on its chemical composition and its sensory properties. For this purpose, several parameters were analysed: acidity, pH, dry extract, and volatile compounds (methanol, acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate and fusel alcohols). The volatile compounds were identified by GC-MS and quantified by GC-FID. Sensory analysis was performed by a trained panel, who have profiled this beverage, as well as the changes acquired during ageing. Spectroscopic techniques, namely FTIR–ATR, were applied to discriminate the different beverages produced. The results highlighted an increase in Arbutus unedo spirit’s quality with the wood contact, mainly based on the sensory attributes. Additionally, they showed that the best beverages were produced using oak wood with medium toasting levels during three months of ageing.

International audience