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Abstract The application of artificial neural networks (ANNs) can be found in numerous fields, including image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and autonomous vehicles. As well, intrusion detection, the subject of this paper, relies heavily on it. Different intrusion detection models have been constructed using ANNs. While ANNs are relatively mature to construct intrusion detection models, some challenges remain. Among the most notorious of these are the bloated models caused by the large number of parameters, and the non-interpretability of the models. Our paper presents Convolutional Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (CKANs), which are designed to overcome these difficulties and provide an interpretable and accurate intrusion detection model. Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) are developed from the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem. Meanwhile, CKAN incorporates a convolutional computational mechanism based on KAN. The model proposed in this paper is constructed by incorporating attention mechanisms into CKAN’s computational logic. The datasets CICIoT2023 and CICIoMT2024 were used for model training and validation. From the results of evaluating the performance indicators of the experiments, the intrusion detection model constructed based on CKANs has an attractive application prospect. As compared with other methods, the model can predict a much higher level of accuracy with significantly fewer parameters. However, it is not superior in terms of memory usage, execution speed and energy consumption.

Abstract Many intrusion detection techniques have been developed to ensure that the target system can function properly under the established rules. With the booming Internet of Things (IoT) applications, the resource-constrained nature of its devices makes it urgent to explore lightweight and high-performance intrusion detection models. Recent years have seen a particularly active application of deep learning (DL) techniques. The spiking neural network (SNN), a type of artificial intelligence that is associated with sparse computations and inherent temporal dynamics, has been viewed as a potential candidate for the next generation of DL. It should be noted, however, that current research into SNNs has largely focused on scenarios where limited computational resources and insufficient power sources are not considered. Consequently, even state-of-the-art SNN solutions tend to be inefficient. In this paper, a lightweight and effective detection model is proposed. With the help of rational algorithm design, the model integrates the advantages of SNNs as well as convolutional neural networks (CNNs). In addition to reducing resource usage, it maintains a high level of classification accuracy. The proposed model was evaluated against some current state-of-the-art models using a comprehensive set of metrics. Based on the experimental results, the model demonstrated improved adaptability to environments with limited computational resources and energy sources.

Web applications have proliferated across various business sectors, serving as essential tools for billions of users in their daily lives activities. However, many of these applications are malicious which is a major threat to Internet users as they can steal sensitive information, install malware, and propagate spam. Detecting malicious websites by analyzing web content is ineffective due to the complexity of extraction of the representative features, the huge data volume, the evolving nature of the malicious patterns, the stealthy nature of the attacks, and the limitations of traditional classifiers. Uniform Resource Locators (URL) features are static and can often provide immediate insights about the website without the need to load its content. However, existing solutions for detecting malicious web applications through web content analysis often struggle due to complex feature extraction, massive data volumes, evolving attack patterns, and limitations of traditional classifiers. Leveraging solely lexical URL features proves insufficient, potentially leading to inaccurate classifications. This study proposes a multimodal representation approach that fuses textual and image-based features to enhance the performance of the malicious website detection. Textual features facilitate the deep learning model’s ability to understand and represent detailed semantic information related to attack patterns, while image features are effective in recognizing more general malicious patterns. In doing so, patterns that are hidden in textual format may be recognizable in image format. Two Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) models were constructed to extract the hidden features from both textual and image-represented features. The output layers of both models were combined and used as input for an artificial neural network classifier for decision-making. Results show the effectiveness of the proposed model when compared to other models. The overall performance in terms of Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC) was improved by 4.3% while the false positive rate was reduced by 1.5%.

Network technology has had a distinctive impact on the entire human civilization and has become an important factor of production in many countries and regions. However, with the widespread popularity of network technology, security flaws have been scattered in various fields, and potential crises may break out by attackers at any time. Therefore, it is crucial to establish a traffic monitoring mechanism for network systems. Some researchers have already implemented intrusion detection models by convolutional neural networks (CNNs) combined with attention mechanisms and achieved good results. However, few attempts have been made to improve the computational efficiency of the model by organizing the appropriate image structure, and the integration of attention mechanisms could be further enhanced. In this study, an attention-based CNN intrusion detection model has been proposed. Together with the image generation methods described in this paper, an efficient and accurate processing flow is formed. To optimize the use of the feature information in the experiments, the feature fields in the experimental images were arranged according to the results of their importance analysis. And a more integrated attention mechanism has been applied to the CNN for building the detection model. A series of comparative experiments were conducted on a subset of the CSE-CIC-IDS2018 dataset, and the results show that the detection process and model proposed in this paper can swiftly complete the detection procedure while maintaining high accuracy.

The recent increase in credit card fraud is rapidly has caused huge monetary losses for individuals and financial institutions. Most credit card frauds are conducted online by illegally obtaining payment credentials through data breaches, phishing, or scamming. Many solutions have been suggested to address the credit card fraud problem for online transactions. However, the high-class imbalance is the major challenge that faces the existing solutions to construct an effective detection model. Most of the existing techniques used for class imbalance overestimate the distribution of the minority class, resulting in highly overlapped or noisy and unrepresentative features, which cause either overfitting or imprecise learning. In this study, a credit card fraud detection model (CCFDM) is proposed based on ensemble learning and a generative adversarial network (GAN) assisted by Ensemble Synthesized Minority Oversampling techniques (ESMOTE-GAN). Multiple subsets were extracted using under-sampling and SMOTE was applied to generate less skewed sets to prevent the GAN from modeling the noise. These subsets were used to train diverse sets of GAN models to generate the synthesized subsets. A set of Random Forest classifiers was then trained based on the proposed ESMOTE-GAN technique. The probabilistic outputs of the trained classifiers were combined using a weighted voting scheme for decision-making. The results show that the proposed model achieved 1.9%, and 3.2% improvements in overall performance and the detection rate, respectively, with a 0% false alarm rate. Due to the massive number of transactions, even a tiny false positive rate can overwhelm the analysis team. Thus, the proposed model has improved the detection performance and reduced the cost needed for manual analysis.

Background Malware, malicious software, is the major security concern of the digital realm. Conventional cyber-security solutions are challenged by sophisticated malicious behaviors. Currently, an overlap between malicious and legitimate behaviors causes more difficulties in characterizing those behaviors as malicious or legitimate activities. For instance, evasive malware often mimics legitimate behaviors, and evasion techniques are utilized by legitimate and malicious software. Problem Most of the existing solutions use the traditional term of frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) technique or its concept to represent malware behaviors. However, the traditional TF-IDF and the developed techniques represent the features, especially the shared ones, inaccurately because those techniques calculate a weight for each feature without considering its distribution in each class; instead, the generated weight is generated based on the distribution of the feature among all the documents. Such presumption can reduce the meaning of those features, and when those features are used to classify malware, they lead to a high false alarms. Method This study proposes a Kullback-Liebler Divergence-based Term Frequency-Probability Class Distribution (KLD-based TF-PCD) algorithm to represent the extracted features based on the differences between the probability distributions of the terms in malware and benign classes. Unlike the existing solution, the proposed algorithm increases the weights of the important features by using the Kullback-Liebler Divergence tool to measure the differences between their probability distributions in malware and benign classes. Results The experimental results show that the proposed KLD-based TF-PCD algorithm achieved an accuracy of 0.972, the false positive rate of 0.037, and the F-measure of 0.978. Such results were significant compared to the related work studies. Thus, the proposed KLD-based TF-PCD algorithm contributes to improving the security of cyberspace. Conclusion New meaningful characteristics have been added by the proposed algorithm to promote the learned knowledge of the classifiers, and thus increase their ability to classify malicious behaviors accurately.

The accuracy of solar radiation forecasting depends greatly on the quantity and quality of input data. Although deep learning techniques have robust performance, especially when dealing with temporal and spatial features, they are not sufficient because they do not have enough data for training. Therefore, extending a similar climate dataset using an augmentation process will help overcome the issue. This paper proposed a generative adversarial network model with convolutional support vector regression, which is named (GAN-CSVR) that combines a GAN, convolutional neural network, and SVR to augment training data. The proposed model is trained utilizing the Multi-Objective loss function, which combines the mean squared error and binary cross-entropy. The original solar radiation dataset used in the testing is derived from three locations, and the results are evaluated using two scales, namely standard deviation (STD) and cumulative distribution function (CDF). The STD and the average error value of the CDF between the original dataset and the augmented dataset for these three locations are 0.0208, 0.1603, 0.9393, and 7.443981, 4.968554, and 1.495882, respectively. These values show very significant similarity in these two datasets for all locations. The forecasting accuracy findings show that the GAN-CSVR model produced augmented datasets that improved forecasting from 31.77% to 49.86% with respect to RMSE and MAE over the original datasets. This study revealed that the augmented dataset produced by the GAN-CSVR model is reliable because it provides sufficient data for training deep networks.

Every day, hundreds of thousands of new malware programs are developed and spread worldwide in cyberspace. Most of these malware programs are malware variants such as polymorphic and metamorphic malware, which are created from older versions of malware and able to change their structures and function flows to circumvent security solutions. The accuracy of malware variant detection is a crucial challenge. Many existing malware variant detections use static features extracted from the physical structure of malware file, such as opcodes and function flows. Unfortunately, the static features are subject to obfuscation and code shelling using simple obfuscation techniques. Although a malware variant can change its structure and function flows, it is widely believed that the malware variant cannot hide its malicious behavioral patterns during the runtime. Accordingly, dynamic, or behavioral analysis-based features were suggested by many studies to detect malware variants accurately. However, most of these studies are solely dependent on application-programmable interface calls (or API calls), which is not enough to accurately distinguish between malware and benign due to API-based obfuscation techniques. Therefore, a malware variant detection model that combines different behavioral activities can improve detection accuracy while reducing the false-negative rate. To this end, this study proposed a Deep-Ensemble and Multifaceted Behavioral Malware Variant Detection Model using Sequential Deep Learning and Extreme Gradient Boosting Techniques. Different behavioral features were extracted from the dynamic analysis environment. Then, a feature extraction algorithm that can automatically extract effective representative patterns has been designed and developed to extract the hidden representative features of the malware variants using a sequential deep learning model. These features have been fed into a developed extreme gradient boosting-based classifier for decision making. Extensive experiments have been carried out to validate the proposed scheme. The results were compared to the other related techniques in the field. The results show that the proposed model is reliable, as it improves the detection rate while reducing the false-negative rate.

Software Defined Networks (SDN) is a new network paradigm that emerged to offer better network management by separating network control logic and data forwarding element. This separation speeds up network innovation without relying on the vendor-proprietary interface for network element configuration to forward packets. However, SDN is flow driven network; for each arrived flow, a feasible path is computed to deliver the flow to its destination. Afterwards, the SDN control logic process the corresponding routing rules and instruct the set of data forwarding elements to install them on their Flowtable to guide the routing process. Unfortunately, the network changes more frequently in dynamic large-scale networks, and the Flowtable is a constraint with limited space. These challenges require the SDN controller to compute paths more often, which may also require many flows routing rules. In addition, the frequency of communication link failures has increased lately. The successful deployment of SDN heavily depends on how it satisfies the reliability requirement with uninterrupted services. Several studies were conducted to compute the optimal path for data forward to meet their Quality-of-Service demand. Other studies focus on reducing the frequency of link failure. Some studies were conducted to manage the constraint Flowtable resources. This survey focuses on Routing rules placement, unoptimized routing, link, and switch load balancing, failure detection, and recovery. The paper extensively discusses each issue and analyses the weakness of the current solutions. Finally, it highlights potential challenges that need future research attention.

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) have emerged to improve road safety and traffic efficiency and provide passengers comfort. Most VANET applications rely on the cooperation among vehicles sharing their sensed information. However, misbehaving vehicles which send false information can disrupt the VANETs potential. Although many solutions have been proposed to defend against misbehaving vehicles in VANET, most of these solutions relays on honest majority assumptions and are thus vulnerable to collusion attacks. Colluding vehicles send fake information, and because detection depends on cooperation, such information misleads benign vehicles to make an accurate decision. This study proposes an improved Robust Misbehavior Detection Scheme (iRMDS) by replacing the statistics-based detection threshold, which assumes an honest majority, with a machine learning-based classifier. A Neuro-Kalman-Based Robust Misbehavior detection scheme is proposed in three phases. In the first phase, attackers-Independent features are extracted from signal properties such as the receive signal strength and signal direction and have been integrated with context information features. In the second phase, the Kalman filter algorithm has been designed to extract consistent patterns of context information for each vehicle. That is, the innovation errors of the Kalman filter have been utilized as the input features to train the misbehavior detection model. In the third phase, the artificial neural network algorithm is integrated with the outputs of the Kalman Filter algorithm to recognize the malicious pattern. Results show that the overall performance of the proposed iRMDS solution achieves a 3.44% improvement compared to the related work. Such enhancement is promising in realizing reliable VANET applications to improve road safety, traffic efficiency, and passenger comfort.

The accuracy of solar energy forecasting is critical for power system planning, management, and operation in the global electric energy grid. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure a constant and sustainable power supply to consumers. However, existing statistical and machine learning algorithms are not reliable for forecasting due to the sporadic nature of solar energy data. Several factors influence the performance of solar irradiance, such as forecasting horizon, weather classification, and performance evaluation metrics. Therefore, we provide a review paper on deep learning-based solar irradiance forecasting models. These models include Long Short-Term Memory (LTSM), Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU), Recurrent Neural Network (RNN), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN), Attention Mechanism (AM), and other existing hybrid models. Based on our analysis, deep learning models perform better than conventional models in solar forecasting applications, especially in combination with some techniques that enhance the extraction of features. Furthermore, the use of data augmentation techniques to improve deep learning performance is useful, especially for deep networks. Thus, this paper is expected to provide a baseline analysis for future researchers to select the most appropriate approaches for photovoltaic power forecasting, wind power forecasting, and electricity consumption forecasting in the medium term and long term.

This study presents a novel Similarity-Based Hybrid API Malware Detection Model (HAPI-MDM) aiming to enhance the accuracy of malware detection by leveraging the combined strengths of static and dynamic analysis of API calls. Faced with the pervasive challenge of obfuscation techniques used by malware authors, the conventional detection models often struggle to maintain robust performance. Our proposed model addresses this issue by deploying a two-stage learning approach where the XGBoost algorithm acts as a feature extractor feeding into an Artificial Neural Network (ANN). The key innovation of HAPI-MDM is the similarity-based feature, which further enhances the detection accuracy of the dynamic analysis, ensuring reliable detection even in the presence of obfuscation. The model was evaluated using seven machine learning techniques with 10 K-fold cross-validation. Experimental results demonstrated HAPI-MDM’s superior performance, achieving an overall accuracy of 97.91% and the lowest false-positive and false-negative rates compared to related works. The findings suggest that integrating dynamic and static API-based features and utilizing a similarity-based feature significantly improves malware detection performance, thereby offering an effective tool to fortify cybersecurity measures against escalating malware threats.

Future many-core systems need to address the dark silicon problem, where some cores would be turned off to control the chip’s thermal and power density, which effectively limits the performance gain from having a large number of processing cores. Task migration technique has been previously proposed to improve many-core system performance by moving tasks between active and dark cores. As task migration imposes system performance overhead due to the large wake-up latency of the dark cores, this paper proposes a prediction-based early wake-up (PEW) to reduce the dark cores’ wake-up latency during task migration. A window-based online ridge regression (RR) is used as the prediction model. The prediction model uses the past window’s thermal, power, and core status (i.e., active or dark) to predict the future core temperatures at run-time. If task migration is predicted in the next control period, the proposed PEW puts the dark cores in a power state with low wake-up latency. Thus, the proposed PEW reduces the time for the dark cores to start executing the tasks. The comparison results show that our proposed PEW reduces the completion time by up to 7.9% and 4.1% compared to non-early wake-up (NoEW) and a fixed threshold wake-up (FEW), respectively. It also shows that the proposed PEW increases the MIPS/Watt by up to 5.5% and 2.3% over NoEW and FEW, respectively. These results show that the proposed PEW improves the many-core system’s overall performance in terms of reducing dark cores’ wake-up latency and increasing the number of executed instructions per Watt.

Malware variants are the major emerging threats that face cybersecurity due to the potential damage to computer systems. Many solutions have been proposed for detecting malware variants. However, accurate detection is challenging due to the constantly evolving nature of the malware variants that cause concept drift. Existing malware detection solutions assume that the mapping learned from historical malware features will be valid for new and future malware. The relationship between input features and the class label has been considered stationary, which doesn’t hold for the ever-evolving nature of malware variants. Malware features change dynamically due to code obfuscations, mutations, and the modification made by malware authors to change the features’ distribution and thus evade the detection rendering the detection model obsolete and ineffective. This study presents an Adaptive behavioral-based Incremental Batch Learning Malware Variants Detection model using concept drift detection and sequential deep learning (AIBL-MVD) to accommodate the new malware variants. Malware behaviors were extracted using dynamic analysis by running the malware files in a sandbox environment and collecting their Application Programming Interface (API) traces. According to the malware first-time appearance, the malware samples were sorted to capture the malware variants’ change characteristics. The base classifier was then trained based on a subset of historical malware samples using a sequential deep learning model. The new malware samples were mixed with a subset of old data and gradually introduced to the learning model in an adaptive batch size incremental learning manner to address the catastrophic forgetting dilemma of incremental learning. The statistical process control technique has been used to detect the concept drift as an indication for incrementally updating the model as well as reducing the frequency of model updates. Results from extensive experiments show that the proposed model is superior in terms of detection rate and efficiency compared with the static model, periodic retraining approaches, and the fixed batch size incremental learning approach. The model maintains an average of 99.41% detection accuracy of new and variants malware with a low updating frequency of 1.35 times per month.

Vehicular ad hoc networks have emerged as the main building block for the future cooperative intelligent transportation system (cITS) to improve road safety and traffic efficiency and to provide passenger comfort. However, vehicular networks are decentralized, characterized by high mobility and dynamicity, and vehicles move in a hostile environment; such characteristics make VANET applications suffer many security and communication issues. Recently, blockchain has been suggested to solve several VANET issues including the dissemination of trustworthy life-threatening information. However, existing dissemination schemes are inefficient for safety messages and are vulnerable to malicious nodes and rely on the majority of honest assumptions. In the VANET context, adversaries may collude to broadcast false information causing serious safety threats. This study proposes an intelligent proof-of-trustworthiness-based secure safety message dissemination scheme (PoTMDS) to efficiently share only trustworthy messages. The consistency and plausibility of the message were evaluated based on a predictive model developed using a convolutional neural network and signal properties such as the received signal strength and angle of arrival. A blockchain-based data dissemination scheme was developed to share critical messages. Each vehicle calculates the proof of trustworthiness of the disseminated messages by comparing the received message with the output of the prediction model. The results showed that the proposed scheme reduced the consensus delay by 58% and improved the detection accuracy by 7.8%. Therefore, the proposed scheme can have an important role in improving the applications of future cITS.

Today, fake news is a growing concern due to its devastating impacts on communities. The rise of social media, which many users consider the main source of news, has exacerbated this issue because individuals can easily disseminate fake news more quickly and inexpensive with fewer checks and filters than traditional news media. Numerous approaches have been explored to automate the detection and prevent the spread of fake news. However, achieving accurate detection requires addressing two crucial aspects: obtaining the representative features of effective news and designing an appropriate model. Most of the existing solutions rely solely on content-based features that are insufficient and overlapping. Moreover, most of the models used for classification are constructed with the concept of a dense features vector unsuitable for short news sentences. To address this problem, this study proposed a Web-Informed-Augmented Fake News Detection Model using Stacked Layers of Convolutional Neural Network and Deep Autoencoder called ICNN-AEN-DM. The augmented information is gathered from web searches from trusted sources to either support or reject the claims in the news content. Then staked layers of CNN with a deep autoencoder were constructed to train a probabilistic deep learning-base classifier. The probabilistic outputs of the stacked layers were used to train decision-making by staking multilayer perceptron (MLP) layers to the probabilistic deep learning layers. The results based on extensive experiments challenging datasets show that the proposed model performs better than the related work models. It achieves 26.6% and 8% improvement in detection accuracy and overall detection performance, respectively. Such achievements are promising for reducing the negative impacts of fake news on communities.

Data stream mining deals with processing large amounts of data in nonstationary environments, where the relationship between the data and the labels often changes. Such dynamic relationships make it difficult to design a computationally efficient data stream processing algorithm that is also adaptable to the nonstationarity of the environment. To make the algorithm adaptable to the nonstationarity of the environment, concept drift detectors are attached to detect the changes in the environment by monitoring the error rates and adapting to the environment’s current state. Unfortunately, current approaches to adapt to environmental changes assume that the data stream is fully labeled. Assuming a fully labeled data stream is a flawed assumption as the labeling effort would be too impractical due to the rapid arrival and volume of the data. To address this issue, this study proposes to detect concept drift by anticipating a possible change in the true label in the high confidence prediction region. This study also proposes an ensemble-based concept drift adaptation approach that transfers reliable classifiers to the new concept. The significance of our proposed approach compared to the current baselines is that our approach does not use a performance measur as the drift signal or assume a change in data distribution when concept drift occurs. As a result, our proposed approach can detect concept drift when labeled data are scarce, even when the data distribution remains static. Based on the results, this proposed approach can detect concept drifts and fully supervised data stream mining approaches and performs well on mixed-severity concept drift datasets.

Recently, malware has become more abundant and complex as the Internet has become more widely used in daily services. Achieving satisfactory accuracy in malware detection is a challenging task since malicious software exhibit non-relevant features when they change the performed behaviors as a result of their awareness of the analysis environments. However, the existing solutions extract features from the entire collected data offered by malware during the run time. Accordingly, the actual malicious behaviors are hidden during the training, leading to a model trained using unrepresentative features. To this end, this study presents a feature extraction scheme based on the proposed dynamic initial evasion behaviors determination (DIEBD) technique to improve the performance of evasive malware detection. To effectively represent evasion behaviors, the collected behaviors are tracked by examining the entropy distributions of APIs-gram features using the box-whisker plot algorithm. A feature set suggested by the DIEBD-based feature extraction scheme is used to train machine learning algorithms to evaluate the proposed scheme. Our experiments’ outcomes on a dataset of benign and evasive malware samples show that the proposed scheme achieved an accuracy of 0.967, false positive rate of 0.040, and F1 of 0.975.

Smart home technologies have attracted more users in recent years due to significant advancements in their underlying enabler components, such as sensors, actuators, and processors, which are spreading in various domains and have become more affordable. However, these IoT-based solutions are prone to data leakage; this privacy issue has motivated researchers to seek a secure solution to overcome this challenge. In this regard, wireless signal eavesdropping is one of the most severe threats that enables attackers to obtain residents’ sensitive information. Even if the system encrypts all communications, some cyber attacks can still steal information by interpreting the contextual data related to the transmitted signals. For example, a “fingerprint and timing-based snooping (FATS)” attack is a side-channel attack (SCA) developed to infer in-home activities passively from a remote location near the targeted house. An SCA is a sort of cyber attack that extracts valuable information from smart systems without accessing the content of data packets. This paper reviews the SCAs associated with cyber–physical systems, focusing on the proposed solutions to protect the privacy of smart homes against FATS attacks in detail. Moreover, this work clarifies shortcomings and future opportunities by analyzing the existing gaps in the reviewed methods.

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are among the main enablers for future Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSs) as they facilitate information sharing, which improves road safety, traffic efficiency, and provides passengers' comfort. Due to the dynamic nature of VANETs, vehicles need to exchange the Cooperative Awareness Messages (CAMs) more frequently to maintain network agility and preserve applications' performance. However, in many situations, broadcasting at a high rate leads to congest the communication channel, rendering VANET unreliable. Existing broadcasting schemes designed for VANET use partial context variables to control the broadcasting rate. Additionally, CAMs uncertainty, which is context-dependent has been neglected and a predefined fixed certainty threshold has been used instead, which is not suitable for the highly dynamic context. Consequently, vehicles disseminate a high rate of unnecessary CAMs which degrades VANET performance. A good broadcasting scheme should accurately determine which and when CAMs are broadcasted. To this end, this study proposes a Context-Aware Adaptive Cooperative Awareness Messages Broadcasting Scheme (CA-ABS) using combinations of Adaptive Kalman Filter, Autoregression, and Sequential Deep Learning and Fuzzy inference system. Four context variables have been used to represent the vehicular context, namely, individual driving behaviors, CAMs uncertainty, vehicle density, and traffic flow. Kalman Filter and Autoregression are used to estimate and predict the CAMs messages respectively. The deep learning model has been constructed to estimate the CAMs' uncertainties which is an important context variable that has been neglected in the previous research. Fuzzy Inference System takes context variables as input and determines an accurate broadcasting threshold and broadcasting interval. Extensive simulations have been conducted to evaluate the proposed scheme. Results show that the proposed scheme improves the CAMs delivery ratio and decreases the CAMs prediction errors.

Database Forensic Investigation (DBFI) involves the identification, collection, preservation, reconstruction, analysis, and reporting of database incidents. However, it is a heterogeneous, complex, and ambiguous field due to the variety and multidimensional nature of database systems. A small number of DBFI process models have been proposed to solve specific database scenarios using different investigation processes, concepts, activities, and tasks as surveyed in this paper. Specifically, we reviewed 40 proposed DBFI process models for RDBMS in the literature to offer up-to-date and comprehensive background knowledge on existing DBFI process model research, their associated challenges, issues for newcomers, and potential solutions for addressing such issues. This paper highlights three common limitations of the DBFI domain, which are: 1) redundant and irrelevant investigation processes; 2) redundant and irrelevant investigation concepts and terminologies; and 3) a lack of unified models to manage, share, and reuse DBFI knowledge. Also, this paper suggests three solutions for the discovered limitations, which are: 1) propose generic DBFI process/model for the DBFI field; 2) develop a semantic metamodeling language to structure, manage, organize, share, and reuse DBFI knowledge; and 3) develop a repository to store and retrieve DBFI field knowledge.

The cryptography employed against user files makes the effect of crypto-ransomware attacks irreversible even after detection and removal. Thus, detecting such attacks early, i.e. during pre-encryption phase before the encryption takes place is necessary. Existing crypto-ransomware early detection solutions use a fixed time-based thresholding approach to determine the pre-encryption phase boundaries. However, the fixed time thresholding approach implies that all samples start the encryption at the same time. Such assumption does not necessarily hold for all samples as the time for the main sabotage to start varies among different crypto-ransomware families due to the obfuscation techniques employed by the malware to change its attack strategies and evade detection, which generates different attack behaviors. Additionally, the lack of sufficient data at the early phases of the attack adversely affects the ability of feature extraction techniques in early detection models to perceive the characteristics of the attacks, which, consequently, decreases the detection accuracy. Therefore, this paper proposes a Dynamic Pre-encryption Boundary Delineation and Feature Extraction (DPBD-FE) scheme that determines the boundary of the pre-encryption phase, from which the features are extracted and selected more accurately. Unlike the fixed thresholding employed by the extant works, DPBD-FE tracks the pre-encryption phase for each instance individually based on the first occurrence of any cryptography-related APIs. Then, an annotated Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (aTF-IDF) technique was utilized to extract the features from runtime data generated during the pre-encryption phase of crypto-ransomware attacks. The aTF-IDF overcomes the challenge of insufficient attack patterns during the early phases of the attack lifecycle. The experimental evaluation shows that DPBD-FE was able to determine the pre-encryption boundaries and extract the features related to this phase more accurately compared to related works.

Recently, fake news has been widely spread through the Internet due to the increased use of social media for communication. Fake news has become a significant concern due to its harmful impact on individual attitudes and the community’s behavior. Researchers and social media service providers have commonly utilized artificial intelligence techniques in the recent few years to rein in fake news propagation. However, fake news detection is challenging due to the use of political language and the high linguistic similarities between real and fake news. In addition, most news sentences are short, therefore finding valuable representative features that machine learning classifiers can use to distinguish between fake and authentic news is difficult because both false and legitimate news have comparable language traits. Existing fake news solutions suffer from low detection performance due to improper representation and model design. This study aims at improving the detection accuracy by proposing a deep ensemble fake news detection model using the sequential deep learning technique. The proposed model was constructed in three phases. In the first phase, features were extracted from news contents, preprocessed using natural language processing techniques, enriched using n-gram, and represented using the term frequency–inverse term frequency technique. In the second phase, an ensemble model based on deep learning was constructed as follows. Multiple binary classifiers were trained using sequential deep learning networks to extract the representative hidden features that could accurately classify news types. In the third phase, a multi-class classifier was constructed based on multilayer perceptron (MLP) and trained using the features extracted from the aggregated outputs of the deep learning-based binary classifiers for final classification. The two popular and well-known datasets (LIAR and ISOT) were used with different classifiers to benchmark the proposed model. Compared with the state-of-the-art models, which use deep contextualized representation with convolutional neural network (CNN), the proposed model shows significant improvements (2.41%) in the overall performance in terms of the F1score for the LIAR dataset, which is more challenging than other datasets. Meanwhile, the proposed model achieves 100% accuracy with ISOT. The study demonstrates that traditional features extracted from news content with proper model design outperform the existing models that were constructed based on text embedding techniques.

The evolution of recent malicious software with the rising use of digital services has increased the probability of corrupting data, stealing information, or other cybercrimes by malware attacks. Therefore, malicious software must be detected before it impacts a large number of computers. Recently, many malware detection solutions have been proposed by researchers. However, many challenges limit these solutions to effectively detecting several types of malware, especially zero-day attacks due to obfuscation and evasion techniques, as well as the diversity of malicious behavior caused by the rapid rate of new malware and malware variants being produced every day. Several review papers have explored the issues and challenges of malware detection from various viewpoints. However, there is a lack of a deep review article that associates each analysis and detection approach with the data type. Such an association is imperative for the research community as it helps to determine the suitable mitigation approach. In addition, the current survey articles stopped at a generic detection approach taxonomy. Moreover, some review papers presented the feature extraction methods as static, dynamic, and hybrid based on the utilized analysis approach and neglected the feature representation methods taxonomy, which is considered essential in developing the malware detection model. This survey bridges the gap by providing a comprehensive state-of-the-art review of malware detection model research. This survey introduces a feature representation taxonomy in addition to the deeper taxonomy of malware analysis and detection approaches and links each approach with the most commonly used data types. The feature extraction method is introduced according to the techniques used instead of the analysis approach. The survey ends with a discussion of the challenges and future research directions.

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) have emerged mainly to improve road safety and traffic efficiency and provide user comfort. The performance of such networks' applications relies on the availability of accurate and recent mobility-information shared among vehicles. This means that misbehaving vehicles that share false mobility information can lead to catastrophic losses of life and property. However, the current solutions proposed to detect misbehaving vehicles are not able to cope with the dynamic vehicular context and the diverse cyber-threats, leading to a decrease in detection accuracy and an increase in false alarms. This paper addresses these issues by proposing a Hybrid and Multifaceted Context-aware Misbehavior Detection model (HCA-MDS), which consists of four phases: data-collection, context-representation, context-reference construction, and misbehavior detection. Data-centric and behavioral-detection-based features are derived to represent the vehicular context. An online and timely updated context-reference model is built using unsupervised nonparametric statistical methods, namely Kalman and Hampel filters, through analyzing the temporal and spatial correlation of the consistency between mobility information to adapt to the highly dynamic vehicular context. Vehicles' behaviors are evaluated locally and autonomously according to the consistency, plausibility, and reliability of their mobility information. The results from extensive simulations show that HCA-MDS outperforms existing solutions in increasing the detection rate by 38% and decreasing the false positive rate by 7%. These results demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed HCA-MDS model to strengthen the security of VANET applications and protocols.

Data streaming applications such as the Internet of Things (IoT) require processing or predicting from sequential data from various sensors. However, most of the data are unlabeled, making applying fully supervised learning algorithms impossible. The online manifold regularization approach allows sequential learning from partially labeled data, which is useful for sequential learning in environments with scarcely labeled data. Unfortunately, the manifold regularization technique does not work out of the box as it requires determining the radial basis function (RBF) kernel width parameter. The RBF kernel width parameter directly impacts the performance as it is used to inform the model to which class each piece of data most likely belongs. The width parameter is often determined off-line via hyperparameter search, where a vast amount of labeled data is required. Therefore, it limits its utility in applications where it is difficult to collect a great deal of labeled data, such as data stream mining. To address this issue, we proposed eliminating the RBF kernel from the manifold regularization technique altogether by combining the manifold regularization technique with a prototype learning method, which uses a finite set of prototypes to approximate the entire data set. Compared to other manifold regularization approaches, this approach instead queries the prototype-based learner to find the most similar samples for each sample instead of relying on the RBF kernel. Thus, it no longer necessitates the RBF kernel, which improves its practicality. The proposed approach can learn faster and achieve a higher classification performance than other manifold regularization techniques based on experiments on benchmark data sets. Results showed that the proposed approach can perform well even without using the RBF kernel, which improves the practicality of manifold regularization techniques for semi-supervised learning.

Web applications have become ubiquitous for many business sectors due to their platform independence and low operation cost. Billions of users are visiting these applications to accomplish their daily tasks. However, many of these applications are either vulnerable to web defacement attacks or created and managed by hackers such as fraudulent and phishing websites. Detecting malicious websites is essential to prevent the spreading of malware and protect end-users from being victims. However, most existing solutions rely on extracting features from the website’s content which can be harmful to the detection machines themselves and subject to obfuscations. Detecting malicious Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) is safer and more efficient than content analysis. However, the detection of malicious URLs is still not well addressed due to insufficient features and inaccurate classification. This study aims at improving the detection accuracy of malicious URL detection by designing and developing a cyber threat intelligence-based malicious URL detection model using two-stage ensemble learning. The cyber threat intelligence-based features are extracted from web searches to improve detection accuracy. Cybersecurity analysts and users reports around the globe can provide important information regarding malicious websites. Therefore, cyber threat intelligence-based (CTI) features extracted from Google searches and Whois websites are used to improve detection performance. The study also proposed a two-stage ensemble learning model that combines the random forest (RF) algorithm for preclassification with multilayer perceptron (MLP) for final decision making. The trained MLP classifier has replaced the majority voting scheme of the three trained random forest classifiers for decision making. The probabilistic output of the weak classifiers of the random forest was aggregated and used as input for the MLP classifier for adequate classification. Results show that the extracted CTI-based features with the two-stage classification outperform other studies’ detection models. The proposed CTI-based detection model achieved a 7.8% accuracy improvement and 6.7% reduction in false-positive rates compared with the traditional URL-based model.

A vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is an emerging technology that improves road safety, traffic efficiency, and passenger comfort. VANETs’ applications rely on co-operativeness among vehicles by periodically sharing their context information, such as position speed and acceleration, among others, at a high rate due to high vehicles mobility. However, rogue nodes, which exploit the co-operativeness feature and share false messages, can disrupt the fundamental operations of any potential application and cause the loss of people’s lives and properties. Unfortunately, most of the current solutions cannot effectively detect rogue nodes due to the continuous context change and the inconsideration of dynamic data uncertainty during the identification. Although there are few context-aware solutions proposed for VANET, most of these solutions are data-centric. A vehicle is considered malicious if it shares false or inaccurate messages. Such a rule is fuzzy and not consistently accurate due to the dynamic uncertainty of the vehicular context, which leads to a poor detection rate. To this end, this study proposed a fuzzy-based context-aware detection model to improve the overall detection performance. A fuzzy inference system is constructed to evaluate the vehicles based on their generated information. The output of the proposed fuzzy inference system is used to build a dynamic context reference based on the proposed fuzzy inference system. Vehicles are classified into either honest or rogue nodes based on the deviation of their evaluation scores calculated using the proposed fuzzy inference system from the context reference. Extensive experiments were carried out to evaluate the proposed model. Results show that the proposed model outperforms the state-of-the-art models. It achieves a 7.88% improvement in the overall performance, while a 16.46% improvement is attained for detection rate compared to the state-of-the-art model. The proposed model can be used to evict the rogue nodes, and thus improve the safety and traffic efficiency of crewed or uncrewed vehicles designed for different environments, land, naval, or air.

Ransomware is an ill-famed malware that has received recognition because of its lethal and irrevocable effects on its victims. The irreparable loss caused due to ransomware requires the timely detection of these attacks. Several studies including surveys and reviews are conducted on the evolution, taxonomy, trends, threats, and countermeasures of ransomware. Some of these studies were specifically dedicated to IoT and android platforms. However, there is not a single study in the available literature that addresses the significance of dynamic analysis for the ransomware detection studies for all the targeted platforms. This study also provides the information about the datasets collection from its sources, which were utilized in the ransomware detection studies of the diverse platforms. This study is also distinct in terms of providing a survey about the ransomware detection studies utilizing machine learning, deep learning, and blend of both techniques while capitalizing on the advantages of dynamic analysis for the ransomware detection. The presented work considers the ransomware detection studies conducted from 2019 to 2021. This study provides an ample list of future directions which will pave the way for future research.

In-network caching is the essential part of Content-Centric Networking (CCN). The main aim of a CCN caching module is data distribution within the network. Each CCN node can cache content according to its placement policy. Therefore, it is fully equipped to meet the requirements of future networks demands. The placement strategy decides to cache the content at the optimized location and minimize content redundancy within the network. When cache capacity is full, the content eviction policy decides which content should stay in the cache and which content should be evicted. Hence, network performance and cache hit ratio almost equally depend on the content placement and replacement policies. Content eviction policies have diverse requirements due to limited cache capacity, higher request rates, and the rapid change of cache states. Many replacement policies follow the concept of low or high popularity and data freshness for content eviction. However, when content loses its popularity after becoming very popular in a certain period, it remains in the cache space. Moreover, content is evicted from the cache space before it becomes popular. To handle the above-mentioned issue, we introduced the concept of maturity/immaturity of the content. The proposed policy, named Immature Used (IMU), finds the content maturity index by using the content arrival time and its frequency within a specific time frame. Also, it determines the maturity level through a maturity classifier. In the case of a full cache, the least immature content is evicted from the cache space. We performed extensive simulations in the simulator (Icarus) to evaluate the performance (cache hit ratio, path stretch, latency, and link load) of the proposed policy with different well-known cache replacement policies in CCN. The obtained results, with varying popularity and cache sizes, indicate that our proposed policy can achieve up to 14.31% more cache hits, 5.91% reduced latency, 3.82% improved path stretch, and 9.53% decreased link load, compared to the recently proposed technique. Moreover, the proposed policy performed significantly better compared to other baseline approaches.

Wireless Sensors Networks have been the focus of significant attention from research and development due to their applications of collecting data from various fields such as smart cities, power grids, transportation systems, medical sectors, military, and rural areas. Accurate and reliable measurements for insightful data analysis and decision-making are the ultimate goals of sensor networks for critical domains. However, the raw data collected by WSNs usually are not reliable and inaccurate due to the imperfect nature of WSNs. Identifying misbehaviours or anomalies in the network is important for providing reliable and secure functioning of the network. However, due to resource constraints, a lightweight detection scheme is a major design challenge in sensor networks. This paper aims at designing and developing a lightweight anomaly detection scheme to improve efficiency in terms of reducing the computational complexity and communication and improving memory utilization overhead while maintaining high accuracy. To achieve this aim, one-class learning and dimension reduction concepts were used in the design. The One-Class Support Vector Machine (OCSVM) with hyper-ellipsoid variance was used for anomaly detection due to its advantage in classifying unlabelled and multivariate data. Various One-Class Support Vector Machine formulations have been investigated and Centred-Ellipsoid has been adopted in this study due to its effectiveness. Centred-Ellipsoid is the most effective kernel among studies formulations. To decrease the computational complexity and improve memory utilization, the dimensions of the data were reduced using the Candid Covariance-Free Incremental Principal Component Analysis (CCIPCA) algorithm. Extensive experiments were conducted to evaluate the proposed lightweight anomaly detection scheme. Results in terms of detection accuracy, memory utilization, computational complexity, and communication overhead show that the proposed scheme is effective and efficient compared few existing schemes evaluated. The proposed anomaly detection scheme achieved the accuracy higher than 98%, with O(nd) memory utilization and no communication overhead.

The Internet of Things (IoT) concept has emerged to improve people’s lives by providing a wide range of smart and connected devices and applications in several domains, such as green IoT-based agriculture, smart farming, smart homes, smart transportation, smart health, smart grid, smart cities, and smart environment. However, IoT devices are at risk of cyber attacks. The use of deep learning techniques has been adequately adopted by researchers as a solution in securing the IoT environment. Deep learning has also successfully been implemented in various fields, proving its superiority in tackling intrusion detection attacks. Due to the limitation of signature-based detection for unknown attacks, the anomaly-based Intrusion Detection System (IDS) gains advantages to detect zero-day attacks. In this paper, a systematic literature review (SLR) is presented to analyze the existing published literature regarding anomaly-based intrusion detection, using deep learning techniques in securing IoT environments. Data from the published studies were retrieved from five databases (IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and MDPI). Out of 2116 identified records, 26 relevant studies were selected to answer the research questions. This review has explored seven deep learning techniques practiced in IoT security, and the results showed their effectiveness in dealing with security challenges in the IoT ecosystem. It is also found that supervised deep learning techniques offer better performance, compared to unsupervised and semi-supervised learning. This analysis provides an insight into how the use of data types and learning methods will affect the performance of deep learning techniques for further contribution to enhancing a novel model for anomaly intrusion detection and prediction.

Software-defined network (SDN) is a new paradigm that decouples the control plane and data plane. This offered a more flexible way to efficiently manage the network. However, the increasing number of traffics due to the proliferation of the Internet of Things (IoT) devices also increase the number of flow arrival which in turn causes flow rules to change more often, and similarly, path setup requests increased. These events required route path computation activities to take place immediately to cope with the new network changes. Searching for an optimal route might be costly in terms of the time required to calculate a new path and update the corresponding switches. However, the current path selection schemes considered only single routing metrics either link or switch operation. Incorporating link quality and switch’s role during path selection decisions have not been considered. This paper proposed Route Path Selection Optimization (RPSO) with multi-constraint. RPSO introduced joint parameters based on link and switches such as Link Latency (LL), Link Delivery Ratio (LDR), and Critical Switch Frequency Score (CWFscore). These metrics encourage path selection with better link quality and a minimal number of critical switches. The experimental results show that the proposed scheme reduced path stretch by 37%, path setup latency by 73% thereby improving throughput by 55.73%, and packet delivery ratio by 12.5% compared to the baseline work.

Software defined networking (SDN) is an emerging network paradigm that decouples the control plane from the data plane. The data plane is composed of forwarding elements called switches and the control plane is composed of controllers. SDN is gaining popularity from industry and academics due to its advantages such as centralized, flexible, and programmable network management. The increasing number of traffics due to the proliferation of the Internet of Thing (IoT) devices may result in two problems: (1) increased processing load of the controller, and (2) insufficient space in the switches’ flow table to accommodate the flow entries. These problems may cause undesired network behavior and unstable network performance, especially in large-scale networks. Many solutions have been proposed to improve the management of the flow table, reducing controller processing load, and mitigating security threats and vulnerabilities on the controllers and switches. This paper provides comprehensive surveys of existing schemes to ensure SDN meets the quality of service (QoS) demands of various applications and cloud services. Finally, potential future research directions are identified and discussed such as management of flow table using machine learning.