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Circular Economy is at the heart of the new environmental policies in France, in Europe and in the rest of the world. It consists in changing the global production apparatus such that its environmental footprint is minimized, by Reducing, Recovering, Recycling and Repurposing. Recent research emphasizes maintenance is one of the most effective tools to increase the lifespan of technical objects and thus minimizing interaction with the environment. Knowing this, the question is: How to efficiently schedule maintenance in order to improve the economic and environmental sustainability of a technical object? This work aims to provide tools for optimizing maintenance schedules within the framework of Circular Economy.Based on a review of the literature on Circular Economy and Scheduling Theory, we present a Multi-Objective Mixed Integer Linear Program (MILP) for optimizing maintenance planning alongside with a heuristic approach. Then, the specific application case of Laundromat washing machines is studied. Experiments are then realized and the results are presented and analyzed. Circular economy aware production/maintenance plannings are obtained for specific weightings of the objectives and provide decent results even on large instances, yet some specific cases yield mixed results and potential improvements and further developments are suggested.

Circular Economy is at the heart of the new environmental policies in France, in Europe and in the rest of the world. It consists in changing the global production apparatus such that its environmental footprint is minimized, by Reducing, Recovering, Recycling and Repurposing. Recent research emphasizes maintenance is one of the most effective tools to increase the lifespan of technical objects and thus minimizing interaction with the environment. Knowing this, the question is: How to efficiently schedule maintenance in order to improve the economic and environmental sustainability of a technical object? This work aims to provide tools for optimizing maintenance schedules within the framework of Circular Economy.Based on a review of the literature on Circular Economy and Scheduling Theory, we present a Multi-Objective Mixed Integer Linear Program (MILP) for optimizing maintenance planning alongside with a heuristic approach. Then, the specific application case of Laundromat washing machines is studied. Experiments are then realized and the results are presented and analyzed. Circular economy aware production/maintenance plannings are obtained for specific weightings of the objectives and provide decent results even on large instances, yet some specific cases yield mixed results and potential improvements and further developments are suggested.

International audience; This article introduces Technologie et Innovation’s special issue on product-service systems (PSS). It examines the origin of the term, presents its topicality through some bibliometric elements, and introduces the main current debates. Product-service systems illustrate the tertiarization of industrial economies, and emphasize the complementarity between goods and services. While the development of services by industry is a relatively old phenomenon, it is currently increasing for economic and environmental reasons. This new topicality can be observed in the significant increase in the number of articles published using this term since the early 2000s. Three main themes characterize the current debates: the environmental impacts of SPS (circular economy), the link between SPS and the functional economy, and the conditions for the production and dissemination of SPS. This special issue contributes to these debates.; Cet article introduit le numéro spécial de Technologie et Innovation sur les systèmes produit-service (SPS). Il revient sur l’origine du terme, présente son actualité par le biais de quelques éléments bibliométriques et introduit les principaux débats actuels. Les systèmes produit-service illustrent la tertiarisation des économies industrielles, et mettent l’accent sur la complémentarité entre les biens et les services. Si le développement de services par l’industrie est un phénomène relativement ancien, elle s’accroit actuellement pour des raisons combinant raisons économiques et environnementales. Cette nouvelle actualité se lit dans la forte progression d’articles publiés utilisant ce terme à partir du début des années 2000. Trois thèmes essentiels caractérisent les débats actuels : les retombées environnementales des SPS (économie circulaire), le lien entre SPS et économie de (la) fonctionnalité1 et les conditions de production et de diffusion des SPS. C’est dans ceux-ci que s’inscrivent les contributions de ce numéro spécial.

This thesis links neo-institutional theory and the practices relating to the circular economy. Based on several inductive methods, it draws mainly upon press publications, institutional documentation, and interviews with actors of all types involved in the circular economy. Theoretically, the results provide a better understanding of the role of discourses in the hybridization of practices, the institutional dimension of the circular economy, as well as the institutionalization of practices that is based on micro-foundations. On a practical level, this thesis reveals the discursive factors of diffusion of practices relating to the functional economy. It offers strategic diagnostic elements to tackle the ongoing transformations in the field of household waste management in France. Finally, it describes the gamification mechanisms that engage citizens in the act of sorting and reducing waste.; Cette thèse met en lien théorie néo-institutionnelle et pratiques relevant de l’économie circulaire. S’appuyant sur plusieurs méthodes inductives, elle s’alimente principalement de publications de presse, de documentation institutionnelle, et d’entretiens menés avec des acteurs de tout type en prise avec l’économie circulaire. Au plan théorique, les résultats permettent de mieux comprendre le rôle des discours dans l’hybridation de pratiques, la dimension institutionnelle de l’économie circulaire, ainsi que l’institutionnalisation de pratiques qui prend appui sur des micro-fondations. Au plan pratique, cette thèse dévoile des ressorts discursifs de diffusion des pratiques relevant de l’économie de fonctionnalité. Elle offre des éléments de diagnostic stratégique permettant d’aborder les transformations du domaine des déchets ménagers en France. Enfin elle décrit les mécanismes de gamification qui engagent le citoyen dans le geste de tri et de réduction des déchets.

Lors du programme ANR « AGREGA », un portail internet contributif (« ePLANETe.Blue ») a été mobilisé. Il a permis d'accompagner les acteurs de la filière d'approvisionnement de la Région Ile-de-France en granulats de construction nécessaires au Grand-Paris dans une démarche de représentation collective des interactions entre stratégies d'économie circulaire et enjeux de soutenabilité du territoire francilien. Dans une logique d'économie circulaire, la filière francilienne d'approvisionnement en granulats peut être abordée comme un système produitsservices (SPS) orienté-produit. Si l'on s'intéresse plus largement aux enjeux de soutenabilité sociale, environnementale et économique liés à l'inscription de cette filière dans le territoire francilien, un SPS orienté-usage peut être objectivé. Le portail internet « ePLANETe.Blue » permettrait à des acteurs de ce territoire d'aller plus loin en coproduisant une méthodologie d'évaluation ad hoc destinée à favoriser un couplage structurel entre ces deux SPS. ABSTRACT. During an ANR (French National Research Agency) project called "AGREGA", a contributory Web portal (ePLANETe.Blue) was developed. It supported actors involved in the supply chain of the construction of aggregates, which was needed in the Paris area. This was done in a process of collective compromises between strategies of the circular economy and issues of the supply chain in the Ile-de-France region. From a circular economy perspective, this supply chain can be considered as a product-oriented product-service system (PSS). From a more regional perspective regarding social, economic and ecological sustainability issues, the same supply chain could be considered as a use-oriented PSS. The "ePLANETe.Blue" Web portal was designed to help actors and stakeholders get involved in the co-production of an ad hoc evaluation methodology which could facilitate a structural coupling between those two types of PSSs. MOTS CLEFS. Economie Circulaire, Systèmes Produits-Services, Economie de la Fonctionnalité, Délibération, Web Contributif.

International audience; Many Energy Efficiency programmes have been undertaken in the name of Energy savings and with a view to efficiency-cost assessment. Energy savings targets had to be met. In this case, the relevant question was to find the least expensive way of achieving this when considering a merit order on which EE actions are ordered given a ratio expressed in €/saved MWh. Many energy suppliers have been involved in this programme in order to meet their EE obligations (e.g. in a white certificate scheme) or in the frame of territorial industrial challenge (undersized energy transport or distribution network for instance). Yet such EE local programmes could be carried out in the frame of self-financed and economically viable activity. However, relevant economic models based on a territorial and multi-partnership approach must be identified. This paper is based on the review of several EE regional programmes with the insight of the functional economic model in order to identify key success factors to the development of such economic models. Findings underlined the crucial importance of the consideration of specific local challenge-beyond energy aspects-when designing an EE scheme, for instance, the problems raised by an aging local population or by increasing fuel poverty. The ability to manage deep partnership with an approach focused on "functional sphere" instead of driven by a traditional sector-based vision is a key point. For instance a comprehensive inter-mediation activity (technical, financial and professional) is a key added value source to monetize and to convert into financial flow. It is also important to develop a long-term relevant assessment procedure beyond traditional measurable effects (energy savings) and which encompasses intangible effects. These findings should complete popular business-model tools so that this "functional sphere" based vision can be embodied in a more comprehensive, sustainability and territorial-based economic model canvas!

International audience; Small household equipment sector is emblematic of the overconsumption of resources and the mass production of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). The increasing production costs (material and labor), the customer demand for more sophisticated products while their purchasing power decreases and stricter WEEE regulations become strategic issues for the viability of (…), a worldwide small household equipment producer. Emerging business models based on collaborative consumption, shared use or the “cradle to cradle responsibility” appears in this context as promising. This research concerns the functional economy, its implementation, drivers and impacts. The ambition of the action research (…) is to construct and experiment a rental service offer for small household equipment toward a more sustainable business model. The experiment phase is about to start in a medium-size French agglomeration. A local ecosystem of actors is involved to provide a satisfying service to consumers: the producer who has decided to launch the experiment and to find partners for it, an association specialized in fixing equipment and buying it again, a network of large- and small scale retail outlets. Associated to this project, as researchers, we have to environmentally and socially assess this experiment. We assume the success factors are not only dependent on a positive LCA but also on a cooperative and trustful partnership between stakeholders, as well a behavioral change and the ownership of the project by consumers. This paper aims at presenting this project and the multidisciplinary method for sustainability assessment. The first part clarifies the socio-economic and environmental context of the study and the specific issues linked to small appliances. Then, a review of current assessment tools and method provides an overview of current practices. Finally, the method is detailed and discussed. The method consists in 1- Upstream of the experiment, data collection thanks to qualitative and qualitative face to face interviews with service providers to understand their original motivation and concerns. Technical data is also collected and implemented in a comparative LCA (rental VS sales for a single product). This first step highlights the key factors. 2- The second step is to evaluate the influence and evolution of these factors during the experiment. Iterative improvement of the service will be done along the way. Interviews are extended to service users. 3- Downstream of the experiment, recommendations are proposed regarding the product and service design, organizational challenges and issues, and mostly, the impact on customers of this consumption model evolution. Special attention will be given to the transferability of the business model to another geographic area or to other economic sectors with a prospective approach.

Among the designations that flourish in the economic press through the attractive name of « new business models » (in English in the text), two of them are specifically based on property sharing : « functional economy » and « sharing economy ». They both connect technological innovations with the evolution of social practices. These approaches intend to take advantage of a contemporary transformation of consumption patterns, characterized by a desecration of the role given to material goods.Our research focuses on the construction and meaning of several socio-economic models, in principle aiming to foster sustainable development. Although the multiplication of designations muddles the definitions of the models, each of them is connected to its own network of actors. Even if the French translations for « functional economy », « économie de fonctionnalité » and « économie de la fonctionnalité », are distinguished only by a definite article, they refer to two contradictory approaches. Similarly, while the term « sharing economy » firstly evokes the « peer-to-peer » (in English in the text) banner, it rapidly spreads to describe a form of connexionist capitalism.The deployment of the studied models makes it possible to capture certain transformations of contemporary representations. The relative success of the models depends on the correspondence of the ideals attached to each of them and the socio-economic facts experienced by actors. Evolution of work, changes in the outlines of property or distrust towards the political class are revealed by the analysis of discourses related to our topics.; Parmi les désignations qui fleurissent dans la presse économique sous l’appellation attractive de « new business models », deux ont pour point commun de s’appuyer sur une logique de partage de biens : l’ « économie de (la) fonctionnalité » et l’ « économie collaborative ». Elles articulent l’exploitation d’innovations technologiques récentes avec l’évolution de pratiques sociales. Ces approches entendent tirer profit d’une transformation contemporaine des modes de consommation, caractérisée par une désacralisation du rôle accordé aux biens matériels.Notre axe de recherche questionne la construction et la signification de plusieurs modèles socio-économiques a priori tournés vers un développement durable. Bien que la multiplication des désignations sème le trouble dans leurs définitions, chacune d’entre elles peut être reliée à des réseaux d’acteurs distincts. Si les expressions « économie de fonctionnalité » et « économie de la fonctionnalité » ne se distinguent que par un déterminant, elles renvoient à deux approches en tension. De même, alors que le terme « économie collaborative » évoque au moment de son émergence la bannière « peer-to-peer », il se diffuse rapidement pour qualifier une forme de capitalisme connexionniste.Le déploiement des modèles étudiés permet de capter certaines transformations des représentations contemporaines. Le relatif succès des modèles est fonction de la correspondance des idéaux qui y sont attachés avec les faits socio-économiques éprouvés par les acteurs. Évolution des formes de travail, modification des contours de

The creation of economic value is a process resting on territorial heritage, which comprises ecologic, technical and social functions that articulate the various elements of the productive capital and guarantee its continued availability. Added value is a monetary representation of its effects on the individual activity of the entities of this territory. However, this heritage is a common good. A collective and multicriteria evaluation would provide a better view of its intrinsic qualities.Functional economy takes into account the maintenance of that heritage at the root with the cooperative design of “product service” offers agreed between the territory’s entities. Micro and macroeconomic accounting could adapt to this representation of the productive system.The study of the energetic retrofit of private tertiary buildings and of the sourcing of construction aggregates in the region of Paris show the relevance of an integrated governance. Multicriteria and multi stake-holder deliberations enable to generate development scenarios that enhance the economic interests of all parties concerned and facilitate the maintenance of the territorial heritage.The relevant information needed for those representations and scenarios to emerge could be made available at all levels of assessment, throughout the process of deliberation, contract-making and valorization. It is key to economic innovation and more sustainable territorial development. The systems and practices involved in managing information can thus be seen as having a productive and heritage value., Le processus de création de valeur économique repose sur un patrimoine territorial constitué de fonctions écologiques, techniques et sociales qui articulent les éléments du capital productif et en assurent la disponibilité pérenne. La valeur ajoutée est une représentation monétaire de ses effets sur l’activité individuelle des entités du territoire. Cependant, ce patrimoine est un bien commun. Une évaluation collective et multicritère permettrait d’en représenter les caractéristiques intrinsèques.Le modèle d’Economie de la fonctionnalité intègre la maintenance de ce patrimoine dès la conception coopérative de solutions "produits-services" contractualisées entre entités du territoire. Les comptabilités microéconomiques et les comptes nationaux pourraient s’adapter à cette représentation du système productif.L’étude des filières franciliennes de la rénovation énergétique des bâtiments tertiaire privé et de l’approvisionnement en granulats de construction révèle l’intérêt de leur gouvernance intégrée à l’échelle régionale. Des délibérations multicritères multi-acteurs permettent d’établir des scénarios de développement favorables aux intérêts économiques réciproques de ces filières et à la maintenance du patrimoine territorial.La disponibilité de l’information nécessaire à l’émergence de ces représentations et scénarios est souhaitable à chaque échelle d’évaluation, tout au long du processus de délibération, contractualisation et valorisation. Sa qualité conditionne l’innovation économique pour un développement territorial plus soutenable. Les systèmes et pratiques associés à sa gestion ont alors une valeur patrimoniale et productive.

International audience; In developed countries, industrial companies are facing challenges for competitiveness from countries with lower labor costs or less demanding environmental standards. Increasing production costs (material and labor), customer demand for more sophisticated products while purchasing power is decreasing and stricter environmental regulations are becoming strategic issues for the viability of industries. Eureˆcook is an action research program aiming to construct and test a rental service offer for small household equipment in a medium-size French conurbation. A local ecosystem of actors is involved in providing a satisfactory service for consumers.Our role, as researchers, is to assess the environmental and societal changes caused by the business model transition. We assume success depends not only on a positive LCA but also on a climate of confidence and co-operation between stakeholders, as well as consumers’ behavioral change and appropriation of the project. A multidisciplinary method for sustainability assessment has been developed combining concepts and tools from social sciences with environmental and engineering sciences.Firstly, the current challenges for B-to-C PSS are obtained from a multidisciplinary review of literature and practice. Then, the socio-economic and environmental context and specific issues linked to small appliances were clarified. Thirdly, the case study is detailed: structuration of the offer, specific challengesand first observations. Finally, our method is presented and discussed.

L’histoire de la United Shoe Machinery Company (USMC) montre que la réalité ne s’adapte pas toujours aux simplifications de la théorie. Comme le signale l’économie de la fonctionnalité, la stratégie de l’entreprise de vendre l’usage plutôt que la machine fournit plusieurs avantages importants, mais elle a également contribué au fait que les usines de chaussures subissent une véritable dépendance technologique de cette compagnie et au fait que l’USMC soit parvenue à une domination monopolistique du marché. D’autre part, en remettant en cause les rudiments généraux de la théorie économique néoclassique, cette position de monopole n’a pas empêché que l’entreprise ait un fonctionnement efficace et ait facilité la modernisation technologique de l’industrie de la chaussure, aux États-Unis et dans d’autres pays. The history of the United Shoe Machinery Company (USMC) shows that reality does not always match the simplifications of the theory. As stated in the functional economy, the strategy of selling the use instead of machinery provided several important advantages, but this strategy also emphasized the technological dependence of the shoe factories and it enabled the USMC to reach a monopolistic market dominance. On the other hand, questioning the neoclassical economic theory, this monopoly did not prevent the company had an efficient operation and facilitated the technological upgrading of the footwear industry in the United States and other countries. Cette recherche a été menée au sein du projet HAR2012-33298, financé par le ministère de l’Économie et de la Compétitivité d’Espagne.

La consommation collaborative est aujourd’hui portée aux nues dans certains milieux économiques et médiatiques et jugée porteuse de nombreuses vertus tant sur le plan social qu’environnemental. Elle peut être définie comme le versant « consommatoire » de l’économie de la fonctionnalité, son extension naturelle dans le domaine du Business to Consumer (BtoC) ou encore du Consumer to Consumer (CtoC). Cet article explore cette logique de consommation nouvelle et s’interroge sur ses interrelations et sa contribution probable à l’économie de la fonctionnalité dans une logique de durabilité. Il s’appuie sur une analyse de 27 sites internet de consommation collaborative et de blogs consacrés à cette thématique ainsi que sur plusieurs études académiques réalisées sur les services d’usages partagés. Étudiant les ressorts motivationnels identifiés dans la littérature et utilisés pour promouvoir l’usage de ces services collaboratifs auprès des consommateurs, les auteurs clarifient leur contribution et leurs limites en termes de consommation durable. Collaborative consumption is currently lauded by a number of economists and sections of the media, who extol its many social and environmental merits. It can be defined as the consumerist aspect of the functional economy, its natural extension to the Business-to-Consumer (BtoC) and Consumer-to-Consumer (CtoC) sectors. This article explores this notion of new consumption and examines how it interrelates with and can contribute to the functional economy to develop sustainability. It is based on an analysis of 27 collaborative consumption websites and blogs, together with several academic studies carried out in the field of shared use services. The article studies the reasons and motives that the literature identifies as being used to promote the use of these collaborative services to consumers, and clarifies their contribution and their limits with regard to sustainable consumption.

Tensions between economy and environmental issues due to hyper and mass production leads to reflection about a new model of innovation. To shift from intensive innovation to sustainable innovation, we propose an approach which involves the design of a sustainable product's diffusion system. Our hypothesis is that both the product and the business model should be redesigned in tandem, combining eco-design and functional economy from an interactionist point of view. We argue that the business model should be based on a network model, instead of linear chain. The research focuses on evolving products systems or upgradable products, including services offered iteratively throughout a product's multiple life cycles. Field studies will be conducted to verify the viability of the project among consumers and manufacturers.

With 42% of the final energy consumption and 25% of CO2 emissions, the French building sector represents a major challenge to manage the energy bill for households, regional communities and the State. This doctoral thesis analyses how communities are able to be involved in projects aiming at reducing energy consumptions in buildings. It proposes to formalize a collaborative design process of energy efficiency program, usable for local actors. The original thesis hypothesis asserts that a significant improvement of the energy efficiency in buildings depends on a paradigm shift of the economic model and proposes the functional economy as a potential solution. Three experimentations were followed to build the argumentation and its validation: the departments of Meuse and Haute-Marne, the two villages of Dammarie-sur-Saulx (Meuse) and Epizon (Haute-Marne) and the city of Commercy (Meuse). This work defines on key success factors of a energy efficiency program and its assessment; the need to use a new economic model as a landmark to establish the action relevance. This work highlights also other programs taking account an evolution of the building sector organisation, Avec 42% de la consommation d'énergie finale et 25% des émissions de CO2, le secteur des bâtiments en France représente un enjeu majeur pour maîtriser la facture énergétique des ménages, des collectivités et de l'État. Cette thèse s'attache ainsi à analyser la façon dont les territoires sont en capacité de s'engager dans des projets destinés à réduire les consommations énergétiques des bâtiments. Elle propose de formaliser une démarche de conception collaborative de programmes d'efficacité énergétique des bâtiments, mobilisable par des acteurs souhaitant s'engager dans de tels projets. L'hypothèse de base de la thèse consiste en effet à affirmer qu'une amélioration significative et durable des bâtiments ne peut s'envisager sans revoir en profondeur le fonctionnement actuel du secteur bâtiment-énergie afin de l'engager vers un modèle basé sur l'économie de fonctionnalité. Trois terrains d'expérimentations ont servi de référence à la construction de l'argumentation et à sa validation : les départements de Meuse et de Haute-Marne, les villages de Dammarie-sur-Saulx et Epizon, et la ville de Commercy.Ce travail conclut sur les facteurs clés de succès d'un programme d'efficacité énergétique et de son évaluation ; la nécessité d'avoir un nouveau modèle économique comme repère pour fonder la pertinence de l'action. Elle souligne enfin son intérêt pour d'autres programmes prenant en charge une évolution de l'organisation de la filière du bâtiment

This is the post-print version of the Article. The official published version can be accessed from the link below - Copyright @ 2010 Inderscience Product-service system (PSS) innovation is a promising approach to address sustainability challenges in the automotive industry. Starting form this assumption, this paper presents and discusses the potential contribution that policy measures can have in fostering the automotive sector in innovating on a PSS level. A set of policy instruments (general instruments and specific PSS-targeted ones) are presented and classified, underlining the effects they could produce at the company and environmental levels. In order to effectively support sustainable PSS diffusion in the automotive industry, the paper suggests the integration of general policy measures (such as internalisation of external costs, extended producer responsibility programmes and informative policies), with the PSS-targeted ones (such as Green Public Procurement focused on sustainable PSS, support of companies in acquiring information related to PSS, support of demonstrative pilot projects). In addition, the paper suggests the necessity to involve actively universities and research centres.