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This case study explores the impact of outcome-based education (OBE) in one school district 5 years after its adoption. The study is guided by constructivist theory and a perspective that policy studies can have an important problem-finding function. The basic assumption of the OBE approach, that educational improvement depends on a shift in focus to outcomes and greater accountability for results, was adopted in a small city school district in Washington as "outcome-driven education" (ODE). Data sources include open-ended interviews with 13 district administrators (central staff and school principals and assistants) and a collection of relevant documents. The impact of ODE is seen in both outputs, or changes in practice, and outcomes, or effects of these changes. Although findings are limited in that they are based on administrators' perceptions, the most significant result is the value ascribed to ODE in stimulating an inspirational vision and the acknowledgement that teaming, an input mechanism, is the most valued mechanism or aspect of the ODE model. Results suggest that the value of OBE may lie in its contributions to professional accountability. (Contains 27 references.) (SLD)

Most of the school districts in Washington State are small, rural, and contain a low percentage of minorities. However, the Hispanic student population has increased from 3.9 percent in 1985-86 to 6 percent in 1991-92, mostly due to migrant students. The percentage of other minority students has remained relatively stable. Consequently, there is increased pressure to improve cultural diversity awareness in administrative preparation programs. State regulations covering teacher and administrator licensure rules outline "general knowledge" or "general skills" requirements concerning cultural diversity awareness. However, the regulations do not require cultural diversity issues to be included in the course content of administrator preparation programs. A survey of the chief administrators at the five approved administrator preparation programs in the state found that the programs are meeting diversity requirements in four ways: recruitment of students with diverse backgrounds, diversity-oriented courses, inclusion of diversity "units" into other courses, and internship activities. However, a content analysis of internship plans designed by administrative students at one university found most of the plans failed to meet the specific requirements or spirit of state regulations on diversity in administrator preparation. Additional regulations may be needed in curriculum and program structure to correct this problem. (JPT)

The use of the 2 x 2 matrix in qualitative data analysis and theory generation is discussed, embracing the perspective that the objective of qualitative research in general and the analysis of qualitative data in particular is the development of theory. A 2 x 2 matrix is considered to be a tabular representation of the relationship of two orthogonal and exhaustive factors (analytic factors) to a third factor (synthetic factor). The four levels of the synthetic factor are related to the four possible pair-wise interactions of the levels of the analytic factors. The simplest form of a complete theoretical statement is a trivariate theoretical statement, which is represented parsimoniously by a 2 x 2 matrix. If the purpose of qualitative data analysis is to generate grounded theory, then the simplest form of the theoretical statements that constitute the theory can be expressed as a 2 x 2 matrix. A specific example is given of the use of a 2 x 2 matrix in a study of alternative teaching work orientations and incentives. A further example from the present authors' prior research concerns the work of school-based specialists. Five figures illustrate 2 x 2 matrices and provide examples of their use. (SLD)

The first of a projected series of three studies addressing the differing organizational contexts of the special education director's work and the resulting consequences, this investigation examined the work of a special education director in a "staff" position with respect to the consequences to the district at this organizational placement choice. The naturalistic inquiry methodology involved open-ended and semi-structured interviews with the subject open-ended and semi-structured interviews with the subject special education director, other administrators, and special education teachers. Intensive field observations of the subject at work over a 3-day period were made and all special education teachers in the subject's district were surveyed. Analysis indicated that the director's work includes two functions, management and supervision, with the director's "staff office" position constraining the exercise of direct control over special education services at the building level; thus the director relies primarily on "expert power" processes to accomplish supervision. Advantages of such an organizational system to the district include visible involvement of principals in the special education process and little conflict between principals and director. Disadvantages include the unmet need of teachers for both closer supervision by the director and stronger advocacy with principals and the unmet need of the director for more direct control of special education services at the building level. (DB)

This paper explores the decision-making process leading to school district approval for staff development. A retrospective field study approach was used to investigate the decision of a small, rural school district in eastern Washington (enrollment 2,200) to adopt a comprehensive English composition teaching program throughout the curriculum. This case was chosen because the program scope required community-wide participation. Interviews with superintendents, principals, teachers, and others were conducted, and several relevant district documents were examined. Data were analyzed according to J. G. March and J. P. Olsen's "garbage can" model of decision making, defined as a series of choice opportunities in which a given project is one of several competing solutions addressing numerous problems. Two implications may be drawn: (1) the "garbage can" model was definitely applicable to the decision-making process in a small, rural school district; and (2) results may help educators anticipate conditions under which staff development programs may be approved in similar settings. The interplay of March and Olsen's theoretical "streams" (choice opportunities, participants, problems, and solutions) may encourage other staff development advocates to initiate similar processes. (MLH)

The concept of community is receiving much press but little theoretical classification. Sociological theory can provide a deeper theoretical understanding of the concept of community and the role of schools in community, by addressing the underlying factors that alienate schools from communities. This paper uses the classic Gemeinschaft/Gesellschaft theoretical framework to analyze the role of schools in relation to the community, contemporary tensions surrounding this role, and the implications for policy that follow from this analysis. Several trends throughout the 20th century have eroded the balance between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft in the schools--a shift toward more bureaucratic and centralized governance, a move from "natural" to "rational" will, changes in community structure, and the erosion of democratic ideals. A sociological analysis shows that the weakening of school-community links is due to an interaction between changes in the community and changes in the school itself; highlights the qualities and experiences lost through the shift to Gesellschaft; and suggests a direction for action. Ways to pull the school back toward the Gemeinschaft pole include: (1) promote authentic involvement of local community members in school governance; (2) restructure local school-district governance; and (3) confront the discrepancy between the corporate ethic and democratic values. The application of sociological theory to the community issue points to the persistence of community and potentially productive ways for schools to reconnect with it. (Contains 22 references and 2 notes.) (LMI)