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We assess the CALIPSO Version 4.2 (V4) aerosol typing and assigned lidar ratios over ocean using aerosol optical depth (AOD) retrievals from the Synergized Optical Depth of Aerosols (SODA) algorithm and retrieved columnar lidar ratio estimated by combining SODA AOD and CALIPSO attenuated backscatter (CALIPSO–SODA). Six aerosol types – clean marine, dusty marine, dust, polluted continental/smoke, polluted dust, and elevated smoke – are characterized using CALIPSO–SODA over ocean and the results are compared against the prescribed V4 lidar ratios, when only one aerosol type is present in the atmospheric column. For samples detected at 5 or 20 km spatial resolutions and having AOD > 0.05, the CALIPSO–SODA lidar ratios are significantly different between different aerosol types, and are consistent with the type-specific values assigned in V4 to within 10 sr (except for polluted continental/smoke). This implies that the CALIPSO classification scheme generally categorizes specific aerosols types correctly over regions where they are abundant. We find remarkable daytime/nighttime regional agreement for clean marine aerosol over the open ocean (CALIPSO–SODA = 20–25 sr, V4 = 23 sr), elevated smoke over the southeast Atlantic (CALIPSO–SODA = 65–75 sr, V4 = 70 sr), and dust over the subtropical Atlantic adjacent to the African continent (CALIPSO–SODA = 40–50 sr, V4 = 44 sr). In contrast, daytime polluted continental/smoke lidar ratio is more than 20 sr smaller than the constant V4 value for that type, attributed in part to the challenge of classifying tenuous aerosol with low signal-to-noise ratio. Dust over most of the Atlantic Ocean features CALIPSO–SODA lidar ratios less than 40 sr, possibly suggesting the presence of dust mixed with marine aerosols or lidar ratio values that depend on source and evolution of the aerosol plume. The new dusty marine type introduced in V4 features similar magnitudes and spatial distribution as its clean marine counterpart with lidar ratio differences of less than 3 sr, and nearly identical values over the open ocean, implying that some modification of the classification scheme for the marine subtypes is warranted.

Abstract Objective To evaluate the influence of Nordic walking (NW) on hip joint loads in order to determine whether it can be safely performed during postoperative physiotherapy in patients after orthopeadic surgery of the hip. Methods Internal hip joint loads were directly measured in vivo in 6 patients using instrumented hip prostheses during NW and ordinary walking (OW). All patients received training in two different NW techniques (double-poling and the diagonal technique) by a certified NW instructor. Measurements were conducted on a treadmill at a speed of 4 km/h on level ground, at 10% inclination and at 10% slope as well as on a level lawn at a self chosen comfortable speed. Resultant contact force (F res), bending moment (M bend) and torsional torque (M tors) were compared between NW and OW as well as between both NW techniques. Results Joint loads showed a double peak pattern during all setups. Neither NW technique significantly influenced hip joint loads at the time of the first load peak during contralateral toe-off (CTO), which was also the absolute load peak, in comparison to OW. Compared to OW, double-poling significantly reduced F res and M bend at the time of the second load peak during the contralateral heel strike (CHS) on level ground both on the treadmill (− 6% and − 7%, respectively) and on the lawn (− 7% and − 9%). At 10% inclination, the diagonal technique increased F res and M bend at CHS (by + 6% and + 7%), but did not increase the absolute load peak at CTO. Conclusion Joint loads during NW are comparable to those of OW. Therefore, NW can be considered a low-impact activity and seems to be safe for patients that are allowed full weight bearing, e.g. during postoperative rehabilitation after THA.

The uptake of hydrochloric acid (HCl), ethanol (C2H5OH), 1-butanol (1-C4H9OH), formic acid HC(O)OH and trifluoroacetic (CF3C(O)OH) acid to growing ice surfaces was investigated at temperatures between 194 and 228 K. HCl displayed extensive, continuous uptake during ice growth, which was strongly dependent on the ice growth velocity, the temperature of the ice surface and the gas phase concentration of HCl. Trifluoroacetic acid was also observed to be trapped in growing ice, albeit approximately an order of magnitude less efficiently than HCl, whereas the adsorption and desorption kinetics of ethanol, 1-butanol, formic acid on ice were not measurably different to those for non-growing ice, even at very high ice growth rates. We present a parameterisation of the uptake coefficient for HCl on growing ice films (γtrap) and compare the results to an existing framework that describes the non-equilibrium trapping of trace gases on ice. The trapping of HCl in growing ice crystals in the atmosphere is assessed and compared to the gas and ice phase partitioning resulting from equilibrium surface adsorption and solubility.

We present a chemical ionization quadrupole mass spectrometer (CI-QMS) with a radio-frequency (RF) discharge ion source through N2∕CH3I as a source of primary ions. In addition to the expected detection of PAN, peracetic acid (PAA) and ClNO2 through well-established ion–molecule reactions with I− and its water cluster, the instrument is also sensitive to SO2, HCl and acetic acid (CH3C(O)OH) through additional ion chemistry unique to our ion source. We present ionization schemes for detection of SO2, HCl and acetic acid along with illustrative datasets from three different field campaigns underlining the potential of the CI-QMS with an RF discharge ion source as an alternative to 210Po. The additional sensitivity to SO2 and HCl makes the CI-QMS suitable for investigating the role of sulfur and chlorine chemistry in the polluted marine and coastal boundary layer.

GANDALF (Gas Analyzer for Nitrogen Dioxide Applying Laser-induced Fluorescence), a new instrument for the detection of nitrogen dioxide based on the laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) technique, is presented in this paper. GANDALF is designed for ground-based and airborne deployment with a robust calibration system. In the current set-up, it uses a multi-mode diode laser (447–450 nm) and performs in situ, continuous, and autonomous measurements with a laser pulse repetition rate of 5 MHz. The performance of GANDALF was tested during the summer of year 2011 (15 August–10 September) in a field experiment at Kleiner Feldberg, Germany. The location is within a forested region with an urban influence, where NOx levels were between 0.12 and 22 parts per billion by volume (ppb). Based on the field results, the limit of detection is estimated at 5–10 parts per trillion by volume (ppt) in 60 s at a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 2. The overall accuracy and precision of the instrument are better than 5 % (1σ) and 0.5 %+3 ppt (1σ min−1), respectively. A comparison of nitrogen dioxide measurements based on several techniques during the field campaign PARADE 2011 is presented to explore methodic differences.

This study evaluates the potential of using aerosol optical depth (τa) measurements to characterise the microphysical and optical properties of atmospheric aerosols. With this aim, we used the recently developed GRASP (Generalized Retrieval of Aerosol and Surface Properties) code for numerical testing of six different aerosol models with different aerosol loads. The direct numerical simulations (self-consistency tests) indicate that the GRASP-AOD retrieval provides modal aerosol optical depths (fine and coarse) to within 0.01 of the input values. The retrieval of the fine-mode radius, width and volume concentration are stable and precise if the real part of the refractive index is known. The coarse-mode properties are less accurate, but they are significantly improved when additional a priori information is available. The tests with random simulated errors show that the uncertainty in the bimodal log-normal size distribution parameters increases as the aerosol load decreases. Similarly, the reduction in the spectral range diminishes the stability of the retrieved parameters. In addition to these numerical studies, we used optical depth observations at eight AERONET locations to validate our results with the standard AERONET inversion products. We found that bimodal log-normal size distributions serve as useful input assumptions, especially when the measurements have inadequate spectral coverage and/or limited accuracy, such as moon photometry. Comparisons of the mode median radii between GRASP-AOD and AERONET indicate average differences of 0.013 µm for the fine mode and typical values of 0.2–0.3 µm for the coarse mode. The dominant mode (i.e. fine or coarse) indicates a 10 % difference in mode radii between the GRASP-AOD and AERONET inversions, and the average of the difference in volume concentration is around 17 % for both modes. The retrieved values of the fine-mode τa(500) using GRASP-AOD are generally between those values obtained by the standard AERONET inversion and the values obtained by the AERONET spectral deconvolution algorithm (SDA), with differences typically lower than 0.02 between GRASP-AOD and both algorithms. Finally, we present some examples of application of GRASP-AOD inversion using moon photometry and the airborne PLASMA sun photometer during the ChArMEx summer 2013 campaign in the western Mediterranean.

A method for the retrieval of aerosol optical and microphysical properties from in situ light-scattering measurements is presented and the results are compared with existing measurement techniques. The Generalized Retrieval of Aerosol and Surface Properties (GRASP) is applied to airborne and laboratory measurements made by a novel polar nephelometer. This instrument, the Polarized Imaging Nephelometer (PI-Neph), is capable of making high-accuracy field measurements of phase function and degree of linear polarization, at three visible wavelengths, over a wide angular range of 3 to 177°. The resulting retrieval produces particle size distributions (PSDs) that agree, within experimental error, with measurements made by commercial optical particle counters (OPCs). Additionally, the retrieved real part of the refractive index is generally found to be within the predicted error of 0.02 from the expected values for three species of humidified salt particles, with a refractive index that is well established. The airborne measurements used in this work were made aboard the NASA DC-8 aircraft during the Studies of Emissions and Atmospheric Composition, Clouds and Climate Coupling by Regional Surveys (SEAC4RS) field campaign, and the inversion of this data represents the first aerosol retrievals of airborne polar nephelometer data. The results provide confidence in the real refractive index product, as well as in the retrieval's ability to accurately determine PSD, without assumptions about refractive index that are required by the majority of OPCs.

We describe the first instrument for measurement of the rate constant (s−1) for reactive loss (i.e., the total reactivity) of NO3 in ambient air. Cavity-ring-down spectroscopy is used to monitor the mixing ratio of synthetically generated NO3 ( ≈ 30–50 pptv) after passing through a flow-tube reactor with variable residence time (generally 10.5 s). The change in concentration of NO3 upon modulation of the bath gas between zero air and ambient air is used to derive its loss rate constant, which is then corrected for formation and decomposition of N2O5 via numerical simulation. The instrument is calibrated and characterized using known amounts of NO and NO2 and tested in the laboratory with an isoprene standard. The lowest reactivity that can be detected (defined by the stability of the NO3 source, instrumental parameters and NO2 mixing ratios) is 0.005 s−1. An automated dilution procedure enables measurement of NO3 reactivities up to 45 s−1, this upper limit being defined mainly by the dilution accuracy. The typical total uncertainty associated with the reactivity measurement at the center of its dynamic range is 16 %, though this is dependent on ambient NO2 levels. Results from the first successful deployment of the instrument at a forested mountain site with urban influence are shown and future developments outlined.

We present an estimation of the uptake coefficient (γ) and yield of nitryl chloride (ClNO2) (f) for the heterogeneous processing of dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) using simultaneous measurements of particle and trace gas composition at a semi-rural, non-coastal, mountain site in the summer of 2011. The yield of ClNO2 varied between (0.035 ± 0.027) and (1.38 ± 0.60) with a campaign average of (0.49 ± 0.35). The large variability in f reflects the highly variable chloride content of particles at the site. Uptake coefficients were also highly variable with minimum, maximum and average γ values of 0.004, 0.11 and 0.028 ± 0.029, respectively, with no significant correlation with particle composition, but a weak dependence on relative humidity. The uptake coefficients obtained are compared to existing parameterizations based on laboratory datasets and with other values obtained by analysis of field data.

We report the characteristics and performance of a newly developed five-channel cavity ring-down spectrometer to detect NO3, N2O5, NO2, total peroxy nitrates (ΣPNs) and total alkyl nitrates (ΣANs). NO3 and NO2 are detected directly at 662 and 405 nm, respectively. N2O5 is measured as NO3 after thermal decomposition at 383 K. PNs and ANs are detected as NO2 after thermal decomposition at 448 and 648 K. We describe details of the instrument construction and operation as well as the results of extensive laboratory experiments that quantify the chemical and optical interferences that lead to biases in the measured mixing ratios, in particular involving the reactions of organic radical fragments following thermal dissociation of PNs and ANs. Finally, we present data obtained during the first field deployment of the instrument in July 2015.

Through measurements of NO2, O3 and NO3 during the PARADE campaign (PArticles and RAdicals, Diel observations of mEchanisms of oxidation) in the German Taunus mountains we derive nighttime steady-state lifetimes (τss) of NO3 and N2O5. During some nights, high NO3 (∼ 200 pptv) and N2O5 (∼ 1 ppbv) mixing ratios were associated with values of τss that exceeded 1 h for NO3 and 3 h for N2O5 near the ground. Such long boundary-layer lifetimes for NO3 and N2O5 are usually only encountered in very clean/unreactive air masses, whereas the PARADE measurement site is impacted by both biogenic emissions from the surrounding forest and anthropogenic emissions from the nearby urbanised/industrialised centres. Measurement of several trace gases which are reactive towards NO3 indicates that the inferred lifetimes are significantly longer than those calculated from the summed loss rate. Several potential causes for the apparently extended NO3 and N2O5 lifetimes are examined, including additional routes to formation of NO3 and the presence of a low-lying residual layer. Overall, the most likely cause of the anomalous lifetimes are related to the meteorological conditions, though additional NO3 formation due to reactions of Criegee intermediates may contribute.

We describe a thermal dissociation cavity ring-down spectrometer (TD-CRDS) for measurement of ambient NO2, total peroxy nitrates (ΣPNs) and total alkyl nitrates (ΣANs). The spectrometer has two separate cavities operating at ∼ 405.2 and 408.5 nm. One cavity (reference) samples NO2 continuously from an inlet at ambient temperature, the other samples sequentially from an inlet at 473 K in which PNs are converted to NO2 or from an inlet at 723 K in which both PNs and ANs are converted to NO2, difference signals being used to derive mixing ratios of ΣPNs and ΣANs. We describe an extensive set of laboratory experiments and numerical simulations to characterise the fate of organic radicals in the hot inlets and cavity and derive correction factors to account for the bias resulting from the interaction of peroxy radicals with ambient NO and NO2. Finally, we present the first measurements and comparison with other instruments during a field campaign, outline the limitations of the present instrument and provide an outlook for future improvements.

With its height-resolved measurements and near global coverage, the CALIOP lidar onboard the CALIPSO satellite offers a new capability for aerosol retrievals in cloudy skies. Validation of these retrievals is difficult, however, as independent, collocated and co-temporal data sets are generally not available. In this paper, we evaluate CALIOP aerosol products above opaque water clouds by applying multiple retrieval techniques to CALIOP Level 1 profile data and comparing the results. This approach allows us to both characterize the accuracy of the CALIOP above-cloud aerosol optical depth (AOD) and develop an error budget that quantifies the relative contributions of different error sources. We focus on two spatial domains: the African dust transport pathway over the tropical North Atlantic and the African smoke transport pathway over the southeastern Atlantic. Six years of CALIOP observations (2007–2012) from the northern hemisphere summer and early fall are analyzed. The analysis is limited to cases where aerosol layers are located above opaque water clouds so that a constrained retrieval technique can be used to directly retrieve 532 nm aerosol optical depth and lidar ratio. For the moderately dense Sahara dust layers detected in the CALIOP data used in this study, the mean/median values of the lidar ratios derived from a constrained opaque water cloud (OWC) technique are 45.1/44.4 ± 8.8 sr, which are somewhat larger than the value of 40 ± 20 sr used in the CALIOP Level 2 (L2) data products. Comparisons of CALIOP L2 AOD with the OWC-retrieved AOD reveal that for nighttime conditions the L2 AOD in the dust region is underestimated on average by ~26% (0.183 vs. 0.247). Examination of the error sources indicates that errors in the L2 dust AOD are primarily due to using a lidar ratio that is somewhat too small. The mean/median lidar ratio retrieved for smoke is 70.8/70.4 ± 16.2 sr, which is consistent with the modeled value of 70 ± 28 sr used in the CALIOP L2 retrieval. Smoke AOD is found to be underestimated, on average, by ~39% (0.191 vs. 0.311). The primary cause of AOD differences in the smoke transport region is the tendency of the CALIOP layer detection scheme to prematurely assign layer base altitudes and thus underestimate the geometric thickness of smoke layers.

The heterogeneous reaction of N2O5 with airborne illite and Arizona test dust (ATD) particles was investigated at room temperature and at different relative humidities using an atmospheric pressure aerosol flow tube. N2O5 at concentrations in the range 8 to 24 × 1012 molecule cm−3 was monitored using thermal-dissociation cavity ring-down spectroscopy at 662 nm. At zero relative humidity a large uptake coefficient of N2O5 to illite was obtained, γ(N2O5) = 0.09, which decreased to 0.04 as relative humidity was increased to 67%. In contrast, the uptake coefficient derived for ATD is much lower (~0.006) and displays a weaker (if any) dependence on relative humidity (0–67%). Potential explanations are given for the significant differences between the uptake behaviour for ATD and illite and the results are compared with uptake coefficients for N2O5 on other mineral surfaces.

With the increase in economic development over the past thirty years, many large cities in eastern and southwestern China are experiencing increased haze events and atmospheric pollution, causing significant impacts on the regional environment and even climate. However, knowledge on the aerosol physical and chemical properties in heavy haze conditions is still insufficient. In this study, two winter heavy haze events in Beijing that occurred in 2011 and 2012 were selected and investigated by using the ground-based remote sensing measurements. We used a CIMEL CE318 sun–sky radiometer to retrieve haze aerosol optical, physical and chemical properties, including aerosol optical depth (AOD), size distribution, complex refractive indices and aerosol fractions identified as black carbon (BC), brown carbon (BrC), mineral dust (DU), ammonium sulfate-like (AS) components and aerosol water content (AW). The retrieval results from a total of five haze days showed that the aerosol loading and properties during the two winter haze events were comparable. Therefore, average heavy haze property parameters were drawn to present a research case for future studies. The average AOD is about 3.0 at 440 nm, and the Ångström exponent is 1.3 from 440 to 870 nm. The fine-mode AOD is 2.8 corresponding to a fine-mode fraction of 0.93. The coarse particles occupied a considerable volume fraction of the bimodal size distribution in winter haze events, with the mean particle radius of 0.21 and 2.9 μm for the fine and coarse modes respectively. The real part of the refractive indices exhibited a relatively flat spectral behavior with an average value of 1.48 from 440 to 1020 nm. The imaginary part showed spectral variation, with the value at 440 nm (about 0.013) higher than the other three wavelengths (about 0.008 at 675 nm). The aerosol composition retrieval results showed that volume fractions of BC, BrC, DU, AS and AW are 1, 2, 49, 15 and 33%, respectively, on average for the investigated haze events. The preliminary uncertainty estimation and comparison of these remote sensing results with in situ BC and PM2.5 measurements are also presented in the paper.

The detection of atmospheric NO3 radicals is still challenging owing to its low mixing ratios (≈ 1 to 300 pptv) in the troposphere. While long-path differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) has been a well-established NO3 detection approach for over 25 yr, newly sensitive techniques have been developed in the past decade. This publication outlines the results of the first comprehensive intercomparison of seven instruments developed for the spectroscopic detection of tropospheric NO3. Four instruments were based on cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS), two utilised open-path cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS), and one applied "classical" long-path DOAS. The intercomparison campaign "NO3Comp" was held at the atmosphere simulation chamber SAPHIR in Jülich (Germany) in June 2007. Twelve experiments were performed in the well-mixed chamber for variable concentrations of NO3, N2O5, NO2, hydrocarbons, and water vapour, in the absence and in the presence of inorganic or organic aerosol. The overall precision of the cavity instruments varied between 0.5 and 5 pptv for integration times of 1 s to 5 min; that of the DOAS instrument was 9 pptv for an acquisition time of 1 min. The NO3 data of all instruments correlated excellently with the NOAA-CRDS instrument, which was selected as the common reference because of its superb sensitivity, high time resolution, and most comprehensive data coverage. The median of the coefficient of determination (r2) over all experiments of the campaign (60 correlations) is r2 = 0.981 (quartile 1 (Q1): 0.949; quartile 3 (Q3): 0.994; min/max: 0.540/0.999). The linear regression analysis of the campaign data set yielded very small intercepts (median: 1.1 pptv; Q1/Q3: −1.1/2.6 pptv; min/max: −14.1/28.0 pptv), and the slopes of the regression lines were close to unity (median: 1.01; Q1/Q3: 0.92/1.10; min/max: 0.72/1.36). The deviation of individual regression slopes from unity was always within the combined accuracies of each instrument pair. The very good correspondence between the NO3 measurements by all instruments for aerosol-free experiments indicates that the losses of NO3 in the inlet of the instruments were determined reliably by the participants for the corresponding conditions. In the presence of inorganic or organic aerosol, however, differences in the measured NO3 mixing ratios were detectable among the instruments. In individual experiments the discrepancies increased with time, pointing to additional NO3 radical losses by aerosol deposited onto the filters or on the inlet walls of the instruments. Instruments using DOAS analyses showed no significant effect of aerosol on the detection of NO3. No hint of a cross interference of NO2 was found. The effect of non-Lambert–Beer behaviour of water vapour absorption lines on the accuracy of the NO3 detection by broadband techniques was small and well controlled. The NO3Comp campaign demonstrated the high quality, reliability and robustness of performance of current state-of-the-art instrumentation for NO3 detection.

We describe measurements of peroxyacetyl nitrate (CH3C(O)O2NO2, PAN) and peroxyacetic acid (CH3C(O)OOH, PAA) in the Boreal forest using iodide chemical ionization mass spectrometry (ICIMS). The measurements were made during the Hyytiälä United Measurement of Photochemistry and Particles – Comprehensive Organic Particle and Environmental Chemistry (HUMPPA-COPEC-2010) measurement intensive. Mixing ratios of PAN and PAA were determined by measuring the acetate ion signal (CH3C(O)O−, m/z = 59) resulting from reaction of CH3C(O)O2 (from the thermal dissociation of PAN) or CH3C(O)OOH with iodide ions using alternatively heated and ambient temperature inlet lines. During some periods of high temperature (~ 30 °C) and low NOx (< 1 ppbv), PAA mixing ratios were similar to, or exceeded those of PAN and thus contributed a significant fraction of the total acetate signal. PAA is thus a potential interference for ICIMS measurements of PAN, and especially eddy covariance flux measurements in environments where the PAA flux is likely to be a significant proportion of the (short timescale) acetate ion variability. Within the range of mixing ratios of NOx measured during HUMPPA-COPEC, the modelled ratio of PAA-to-PAN was found to be sensitive to temperature (through the thermal decomposition rate of PAN) and the HO2 mixing ratio, thus providing some constraint to estimates of photochemical activity and oxidation rates in the Boreal environment.

The almost total anthropogenic control of the nitrogen cycle has led to wide ranging trans-national and national efforts to quantify the effects of reactive nitrogen on the environment. A number of monitoring techniques have been developed for the measurement of nitric acid and subsequent estimation of nitrogen deposition within large networks and for process studies on shorter measurement campaigns. We discuss the likelihood that many of these techniques are sensitive to another important gas-phase component of oxidized nitrogen: dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5). We present measurements using a MARGA wet annular denuder device alongside measurements of N2O5 with a discussion of evidence from the laboratory and the field which suggests that alkali- and aqueous-denuder measurements are sensitive to the sum of HNO3 + 2N2O5. Nocturnal data from these denuder devices should be treated with care before using HNO3 concentrations derived from these data. This is a systematic error which is highly dependent on ambient conditions and is likely to cause systematic misinterpretation of datasets in periods where N2O5 is significant proportion of NOy. It is also likely that deposition estimates of HNO3 via data obtained with these methods is compromised to greater and lesser extents depending on the season and environment of the sampling location.

N2O5 detection in the atmosphere has been accomplished using techniques which have been developed during the last decade. Most techniques use a heated inlet to thermally decompose N2O5 to NO3, which can be detected by either cavity based absorption at 662 nm or by laser-induced fluorescence. In summer 2007, a large set of instruments, which were capable of measuring NO3 mixing ratios, were simultaneously deployed in the atmosphere simulation chamber SAPHIR in Jülich, Germany. Some of these instruments measured N2O5 mixing ratios either simultaneously or alternatively. Experiments focused on the investigation of potential interferences from, e.g., water vapour or aerosol and on the investigation of the oxidation of biogenic volatile organic compounds by NO3. The comparison of N2O5 mixing ratios shows an excellent agreement between measurements of instruments applying different techniques (3 cavity ring-down (CRDS) instruments, 2 laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) instruments). Datasets are highly correlated as indicated by the square of the linear correlation coefficients, R2, which values were larger than 0.96 for the entire datasets. N2O5 mixing ratios well agree within the combined accuracy of measurements. Slopes of the linear regression range between 0.87 and 1.26 and intercepts are negligible. The most critical aspect of N2O5 measurements by cavity ring-down instruments is the determination of the inlet and filter transmission efficiency. Measurements here show that the N2O5 inlet transmission efficiency can decrease in the presence of high aerosol loads, and that frequent filter/inlet changing is necessary to quantitatively sample N2O5 in some environments. The analysis of data also demonstrates that a general correction for degrading filter transmission is not applicable for all conditions encountered during this campaign. Besides the effect of a gradual degradation of the inlet transmission efficiency aerosol exposure, no other interference for N2O5 measurements is found.

Nighttime mixing ratios of boundary layer N2O5 were determined using cavity-ring-down spectroscopy during the DOMINO campaign in Southern Spain (Diel Oxidant Mechanisms In relation to Nitrogen Oxides, 21 November 2008–8 December 2008). N2O5 mixing ratios ranged from below the detection limit (~5 ppt) to ~500 ppt. A steady-state analysis constrained by measured mixing ratios of N2O5, NO2 and O3 was used to derive NO3 lifetimes and compare them to calculated rates of loss via gas-phase and heterogeneous reactions of both NO3 and N2O5. Three distinct types of air masses were encountered, which were largely marine (Atlantic), continental or urban-industrial in origin. NO3 lifetimes were longest in the Atlantic sector (up to ~30 min) but were very short (a few seconds) in polluted, air masses from the local city and petroleum-related industrial complex of Huelva. Air from the continental sector was an intermediate case. The high reactivity to NO3 of the urban air mass was not accounted for by gas-phase and heterogeneous reactions, rates of which were constrained by measurements of NO, volatile organic species and aerosol surface area. In general, high NO2 mixing ratios were associated with low NO3 lifetimes, though heterogeneous processes (e.g. reaction of N2O5 on aerosol) were generally less important than direct gas-phase losses of NO3. The presence of SO2 at levels above ~2 ppb in the urban air sector was always associated with very low N2O5 mixing ratios indicating either very short NO3 lifetimes in the presence of combustion-related emissions or an important role for reduced sulphur species in urban, nighttime chemistry. High production rates coupled with low lifetimes of NO3 imply an important contribution of nighttime chemistry to removal of both NOx and VOC.

Recent reports describe increasing incidence of non-Aspergillus mold infections in hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT) and solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients. To investigate the epidemiology of infections with Mucorales, Fusarium spp., and Scedosporium spp. molds, we analyzed data from the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network, 23 transplant centers that conducted prospective surveillance for invasive fungal infections during 2001–2006. We identified 169 infections (105 Mucorales, 37 Fusarium spp., and 27 Scedosporium spp.) in 169 patients; 124 (73.4%) were in HCT recipients, and 45 (26.6%) were in SOT recipients. The crude 90-day mortality rate was 56.6%. The 12-month mucormycosis cumulative incidence was 0.29% for HCT and 0.07% for SOT. Mucormycosis incidence among HCT recipients varied widely, from 0.08% to 0.69%, with higher incidence in cohorts receiving transplants during 2003 and 2004. Non-Aspergillus mold infections continue to be associated with high mortality rates. The incidence of mucormycosis in HCT recipients increased substantially during the surveillance period.

Black carbon, light-absorbing organic carbon (often called "brown carbon") and mineral dust are the major light-absorbing aerosols. Currently the sources and formation of brown carbon aerosol in particular are not well understood. In this study we estimated the amount of light–absorbing organic carbon and black carbon from AERONET measurements. We find that the columnar absorbing organic carbon (brown carbon) levels in biomass burning regions of South America and Africa are relatively high (about 15–20 mg m−2 during biomass burning season), while the concentrations are significantly lower in urban areas in US and Europe. However, we estimated significant absorbing organic carbon amounts from the data of megacities of newly industrialized countries, particularly in India and China, showing also clear seasonality with peak values up to 30–35 mg m−2 during the coldest season, likely caused by the coal and biofuel burning used for heating. We also compared our retrievals with the modeled organic carbon by the global Oslo CTM for several sites. Model values are higher in biomass burning regions than AERONET-based retrievals, while the opposite is true in urban areas in India and China.

A new, two-channel instrument for simultaneous NO3 and N2O5 monitoring was used to make the first comprehensive set of nocturnal NOx measurements (NO, NO2, NO3 and N2O5) at the Taunus Observatory, a rural mountain site (Kleiner Feldberg) in South-western Germany. In May 2008, NO3 and N2O5 mixing ratios were well above the instrumental detection limit (a few ppt) on all nights of the campaign and were characterised by large variability. The concentrations of NO3, N2O5 and NO2 were consistent with the equilibrium constant, K2, defining the rates of formation and thermal dissociation of N2O5. A steady-state lifetime analysis is consistent with the loss of nocturnal NOx being dominated by the reaction of NO3 with volatile organic compounds in this forested region, with N2O5 uptake to aerosols of secondary importance. Analysis of a limited dataset obtained at high relative humidity indicated that the loss of N2O5 by reaction with water vapour is less efficient (>factor 3) than derived using laboratory kinetic data. The fraction of NOx present as NO3 and N2O5 reached ~20% on some nights, with night-time losses of NOx competing with daytime losses.

The uptake of NO3 and N2O5 to Saharan dust, ambient aerosols and soot was investigated using a novel and simple relative rate method with simultaneous detection of both NO3 and N2O5. The use of cavity ring down spectroscopy to detect both trace gases enabled the measurements to be carried out at low mixing ratios (10 molecule cm−3). The uptake coefficient ratio, γ(NO3)/γ(N2O5), was determined to be 0.9±0.4 for Saharan dust, independent of relative humidity, NO3 or N2O5 mixing ratio and exposure time. Ambient (urban) aerosols showed a very limited capacity to take up N2O5 but were reactive towards NO3 with γ(NO3)/γ(N2O5)>15. A value of γ(NO3)/γ(N2O5)~1.5–3 was obtained when using candle generated soot. The relative rate obtained for Saharan dust can be placed on an absolute basis using our recently determined value of γ(N2O5)=1×10−2 to give γ(NO3)=9×10−3, which is significantly smaller than the single previous value. With the present uptake coefficient, reaction of NO3 with mineral dust will generally not contribute significantly to its NO3 loss in the boundary atmosphere or to the nitration of mineral dust.

Large climate feedback uncertainties limit the accuracy in predicting the response of the Earth's climate to the increase of CO2 concentration within the atmosphere. This study explores a potential to reduce uncertainties in climate sensitivity estimations using energy balance analysis, especially top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiation imbalance. The time-scales studied generally cover from decade to century, that is, middle-range climate sensitivity is considered, which is directly related to the climate issue caused by atmospheric CO2 change. The significant difference between current analysis and previous energy balance models is that the current study targets at the boundary condition problem instead of solving the initial condition problem. Additionally, climate system memory and deep ocean heat transport are considered. The climate feedbacks are obtained based on the constraints of the TOA radiation imbalance and surface temperature measurements of the present climate. In this study, the TOA imbalance value of 0.85 W/m2 is used. Note that this imbalance value has large uncertainties. Based on this value, a positive climate feedback with a feedback coefficient ranging from −1.3 to −1.0 W/m2/K is found. The range of feedback coefficient is determined by climate system memory. The longer the memory, the stronger the positive feedback. The estimated time constant of the climate is large (70~120 years) mainly owing to the deep ocean heat transport, implying that the system may be not in an equilibrium state under the external forcing during the industrial era. For the doubled-CO2 climate (or 3.7 W/m2 forcing), the estimated global warming would be 3.1 K if the current estimate of 0.85 W/m2 TOA net radiative heating could be confirmed. With accurate long-term measurements of TOA radiation, the analysis method suggested by this study provides a great potential in the estimations of middle-range climate sensitivity.

We evaluate black carbon (BC) model predictions from the AeroCom model intercomparison project by considering the diversity among year 2000 model simulations and comparing model predictions with available measurements. These model-measurement intercomparisons include BC surface and aircraft concentrations, aerosol absorption optical depth (AAOD) retrievals from AERONET and Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) and BC column estimations based on AERONET. In regions other than Asia, most models are biased high compared to surface concentration measurements. However compared with (column) AAOD or BC burden retreivals, the models are generally biased low. The average ratio of model to retrieved AAOD is less than 0.7 in South American and 0.6 in African biomass burning regions; both of these regions lack surface concentration measurements. In Asia the average model to observed ratio is 0.7 for AAOD and 0.5 for BC surface concentrations. Compared with aircraft measurements over the Americas at latitudes between 0 and 50N, the average model is a factor of 8 larger than observed, and most models exceed the measured BC standard deviation in the mid to upper troposphere. At higher latitudes the average model to aircraft BC ratio is 0.4 and models underestimate the observed BC loading in the lower and middle troposphere associated with springtime Arctic haze. Low model bias for AAOD but overestimation of surface and upper atmospheric BC concentrations at lower latitudes suggests that most models are underestimating BC absorption and should improve estimates for refractive index, particle size, and optical effects of BC coating. Retrieval uncertainties and/or differences with model diagnostic treatment may also contribute to the model-measurement disparity. Largest AeroCom model diversity occurred in northern Eurasia and the remote Arctic, regions influenced by anthropogenic sources. Changing emissions, aging, removal, or optical properties within a single model generated a smaller change in model predictions than the range represented by the full set of AeroCom models. Upper tropospheric concentrations of BC mass from the aircraft measurements are suggested to provide a unique new benchmark to test scavenging and vertical dispersion of BC in global models.

An inexpensive, compact instrument for the sensitive measurement of NO3 and N2O5 in ambient air at high time resolution is described. Light from a red-emitting laser diode (≈662 nm) is coupled off-axis into an optical resonator defined by two highly reflective mirrors to achieve effective absorption paths exceeding 20 km. Light leaking from the cavity is detected either as single ring-down events (time constant of ≈100 μs) following rapid switching of the laser intensity at 200 Hz (Cavity Ring Down mode), or as an integrated intensity (Cavity Enhanced Absorption mode). The operational conditions, detection limits (2 pptv in 5 s) and total uncertainty (33 and N2O5 detection/monitoring are assessed and the first measurements in ambient air and from an environmental chamber are described.

The interaction of mineral dust with N2O5 was investigated using both airborne mineral aerosol (using an aerosol flow reactor with variable relative humidity) and bulk samples (using a Knudsen reactor at zero humidity). Both authentic (Saharan, SDCV) and synthetic dust samples (Arizona test dust, ATD and calcite, CaCO3) were used to derive reactive uptake coefficients (γ). The aerosol experiments (Saharan dust only) indicated efficient uptake, with e.g. a value of γ(SDCV)=(1.3±0.2)×10−2 obtained at zero relative humidity. The values of γ obtained for bulk substrates in the Knudsen reactor studies are upper limits due to assumptions of available surface area, but were in reasonable agreement with the AFT measurements, with: γ(SDCV)=(3.7±1.2)×10−2, γ(ATD)=(2.2±0.8)×10−2 and γ(CaCO3=(5±2)×10−2. The errors quoted are statistical only. The results are compared to literature values and assessed in terms of their impact on atmospheric N2O5.