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OBJETIVO: Demostrar los beneficios económicos de la participación comunitaria en la construcción de unidades de salud. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó una evaluación de la eficiencia del gasto en la construcción de unidades de salud. Se comparó el gasto/m² y los tiempos de construcción de cada una de las 21 unidades auxiliares de salud y los 81 centros de salud rural dispersos edificados por el Programa de Apoyo a los Servicios de Salud para Población Abierta a través de tres modalidades de construcción: licitación pública nacional, invitación restringida y participación comunitaria. Este gasto también se comparó con el gasto monetario de otras unidades de salud similares edificadas a través de los programas normales de obra de otras instituciones. Se desarrolló un análisis univariado utilizando estadísticas no paramétricas y se diseñó un modelo matemático de ajuste a normal (bootstrapping) para analizar el gasto/m². RESULTADOS: La mediana de gasto/m² y de tiempos de entrega en las unidades auxiliares de salud y de gasto/m² para los centros de salud rural dispersos fue menor cuando se empleó la participación comunitaria. Los gastos/m² de las unidades construidas por el Programa de Apoyo a los Servicios de Salud para Población Abierta, sobre todo con participación comunitaria, fueron considerablemente más eficientes que los reportados por las obras de otros programas de construcción. CONCLUSIONES: El uso de la participación comunitaria en la construcción de unidades auxiliares de salud y todos los centros de salud rural dispersos permite disminuir considerablemente el monto de recursos invertidos por m² y mejorar los tiempos de construcción en relación con la licitación pública nacional y la invitación restringida. La construcción de unidades de salud bajo las condiciones generadas por el Programa de Apoyo a los Servicios de Salud para la Población Abierta permitiría mejorar los gastos/m² en relación con otros programas de construcción. Debe valorarse la viabilidad de emplear participación comunitaria en otras actividades normales de los servicios de salud.

Objetivo. Conocer el nivel de disponibilidad de algunos medicamentos esenciales (ME) en las unidades de primer nivel de atención de la Secretaría de Salud de México (SSA), a partir de una investigación realizada en 1996-1997. Material y métodos. Del universo de jurisdicciones sanitarias de los 18 estados participantes en el Programa de Ampliación de Cobertura (PAC) se construyó una muestra de manera aleatoria. Todas las unidades de primer nivel de atención ubicadas en las jurisdicciones seleccionadas fueron evaluadas mediante una inspección que utilizó una guía que contenía una lista de 36 ME. En una primera fase del análisis se calcularon el número absoluto y la proporción de unidades que no contaban con un solo ejemplar de alguno de los ME de la lista. En las unidades con disponibilidad de medicamentos se calculó la mediana de la distribución. En una segunda fase se realizó la sumatoria por separado de los 36 medicamentos y de los 10 insumos, y se obtuvieron las medias diferenciadas por tipo de centro de salud y por estado. El estadístico utilizado para la comparación de las medias fue la prueba de Scheffé mediante el análisis de varianza de una vía. Posteriormente se agruparon los medicamentos de acuerdo con sus principales tipos de indicación, y se calcularon las medias y las proporciones de medicamentos disponibles. Las diferencias de proporciones se evaluaron con el estadístico ji cuadrada. Resultados. En el momento de la inspección, las unidades visitadas contaban en promedio, con sólo 18 de los 36 medicamentos incluidos en el estudio. Los problemas de abastecimiento de antibióticos, antifímicos y antipalúdicos fueron particularmente graves. En contraste, el abasto de sales de rehidratación oral, métodos de planificación familiar y biológicos fue relativamente aceptable. En general, los estados clasificados como PAC3 presentaron las mejores cifras de abastecimiento. Conclusiones. La SSA de México, en general, y el Programa de Ampliación de Cobertura, en particular, deberán redoblar esfuerzos para acabar con los cuellos de botella que impiden un abastecimiento adecuado de medicamentos esenciales en las unidades de primer nivel de atención. De otra manera, todas las demás actividades dirigidas a atender las necesidades de salud de las poblaciones más marginadas del país resultarán inútiles, ya que el acceso a los medicamentos constituye la pieza final indispensable de la enorme cadena de la atención a la salud. El texto completo en inglés de este artículo está disponible en: http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html

OBJETIVO: Generar un diagnóstico sobre la disponibilidad de algunos medicamentos esenciales del Cuadro Básico de Insumos (CBI) en las unidades de primer nivel de atención de la Secretaría de Salud en el estado de Tamaulipas, México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Entre septiembre y octubre de 1998 se llevó a cabo una encuesta en todas las unidades de primer nivel de tres jurisdicciones sanitarias de Tamaulipas. La disponibilidad de medicamentos se estudió en todas las unidades de dichas jurisdicciones sanitarias. Como instrumento de medición se utilizó una guía de verificación con una lista de 56 medicamentos y 10 insumos diversos. Para cada medicamento e insumo se calculó el número absoluto y la proporción de unidades que al momento de la verificación no contaban con dicho recurso. En las unidades con disponibilidad de medicamentos se estimó la mediana de la distribución. Como medida de resumen se estimó la mediana del total de medicamentos esenciales disponibles en todas las unidades. Posteriormente, se realizó este mismo ejercicio diferenciado por tipo de unidad. Se hicieron comparaciones directas entre la ausencia de uno o más medicamentos en las unidades y la disponibilidad de los mismos en los almacenes. Todo el proceso de análisis se realizó con el paquete estadístico Stata versión 5.0. RESULTADOS: Ninguna de las unidades visitadas contaba con ejemplares de todos los medicamentos incluidos en la lista. La unidad que más se acercó al total tenía 84% de los medicamentos y la que más se alejó contó apenas con 32%. Los problemas de disponibilidad de antibióticos, antihipertensivos, hipoglucemiantes y medicamentos para el tratamiento de deficiencias de hierro fueron particularmente significativos. En contraste, la disponibilidad de sales de rehidratación oral y métodos anticonceptivos y biológicos fue aceptable. CONCLUSIONES: Las instituciones de salud deberán generar alternativas para mejorar el acceso a los medicamentos en el país, en general, y la disponibilidad de medicamentos esenciales en las unidades de primer nivel, en particular. Dos iniciativas de reciente puesta en marcha permiten ser optimistas al respecto: la descentralización de los servicios de salud para población no asegurada y el Programa de Medicamentos Genéricos Intercambiables, implantado en el ámbito nacional en 1998.

OBJETIVO: Presentar los resultados de la evaluación de un programa de salud del Ministerio de Salud de México dirigido a la población no asegurada de los cuatro estados más pobres del país e implantado entre 1991 y 1995. MÉTODOS: Los efectos del programa se evaluaron en tres rubros: i) cobertura de los servicios; ii) prestación de servicios personales y iii) condiciones de salud de la población objetivo. La ampliación de la cobertura se midió a partir del incremento en la cobertura potencial vía la creación de infraestructura nueva y vía el incremento en el número de recursos humanos adicionales en contacto con el paciente. Para la evaluación de la prestación de servicios se aplicaron tres encuestas, una de utilización, otra de accesibilidad y otra más de calidad. El efecto en las condiciones de salud se evaluó a partir de los cambios observados en los principales indicadores de salud de los menores de cinco años y de las mujeres en edad fértil. RESULTADOS Y CONCLUSIONES: El Programa impactó de manera positiva la cobertura, accesibilidad y calidad de los servicios en los estados involucrados. Asimismo, parece haber influido en la mejoría de los principales indicadores de salud de la población infantil y materna. No obstante, estos últimos avances no pueden atribuirse exclusivamente al Programa, sino a la suma de diversas acciones concurrentes.

Las crisis económicas que han afectado a México desde principios de los años ochenta han influido de manera determinante en el gasto público en bienestar social y, por lo mismo, en el gasto público en salud. En este trabajo se discute la relación que ha existido entre las estrategias de ajuste y el gasto en salud en población no asegurada, así como la distribución de este gasto por regiones. En la primera parte se describe la evolución del gasto público general, el gasto en bienestar social y el gasto público en salud en México entre 1980 y 1995. En la segunda parte se describe con mayor detalle la distribución del gasto público en salud en ese mismo periodo entre la población no asegurada de las cinco regiones en las que dividió al país la Encuesta Nacional de Salud II. La principal conclusión que se desprende de este trabajo es que en el periodo 1980-1995 se mantuvieron las brechas en el gasto en salud para población no asegurada que desde tiempos remotos existen entre las cinco regiones de México. Estas brechas afectan sobre todo a los estados más marginados -que se ubican en su gran mayoría en el sur del país-, no guardan ninguna relación con las diferencias regionales en las condiciones de salud y corren el riesgo no sólo de mantenerse sino incluso de profundizarse como resultado de los nuevos recortes relativos del gasto en bienestar social que contempla la política de ajuste adoptada por la presente administración.

Abstract Background This paper discusses the way in which women’s health concerns were addressed in Mexico as part of a health system reform. Discussion The first part sets the context by examining the growing complexity that characterizes the global health field, where women’s needs occupy center stage. Part two briefly describes a critical conceptual evolution, i.e. from maternal to reproductive to women’s health. In the third and last section, the novel “women and health” (W&H) approach and its translation into policies and programs in the context of a structural health reform in Mexico is discussed. W&H simultaneously focuses on women’s health needs and women’s critical roles as both formal and informal providers of health care, and the links between these two dimensions. Summary The most important message of this paper is that broad changes in health systems offer the opportunity to address women’s health needs through innovative approaches focused on promoting gender equality and empowering women as drivers of change.

Objective: To analyze the temporal and territorial relationship between health system financing fragmentation and maternal mortality in the last two decades in Mexico., Methods: We conducted an ecological-longitudinal study of the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in the 32 states of Mexico during the period 2000-2022. Annual MMRs were estimated at the national and state levels according to health insurance. We compared the distribution of individual attributes and place of residence between deceased women with and without social security to identify overrepresented demographic profiles. Finally, we mapped state disparities in MMR by health insurance for the last four political administrations., Findings: MMR in Mexico decreased from 59.3 maternal deaths per hundred thousand live births in 2000 to 47.3 in 2018. However, from 2019 onwards, MMR increased from 48.7 in 2019 to 72.4 in 2022. Seven out of ten maternal deaths occurred in the population without social security from 2000 to 2018, then decreasing to six out of ten from 2020. Maternal deaths in the population without social security were more frequent among younger women, with less schooling, unmarried, and residing in rural areas, with higher Indigenous presence and greater social marginalization. From 2019 onwards, the MMR was higher in the population with social security., Conclusion: The results of this study confirm the close relationship between maternal mortality and social inequalities, and suggest that affiliation with social security has ceased to be a differentiating factor in recent years. Understanding the evolution of maternal mortality between the population with and without social security in Mexico allows us to quantify the gap in maternal deaths attributed to inequalities in access to maternal health services, which can contribute to the design of policies that mitigate these gaps., Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable. This study involved no human participants and was approved by the Research, Ethics, and Biosecurity Committees of the National Institute of Public Health of Mexico (ID:2358/1826/S21-2022). Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: Ethnic and racial discrimination in maternal health care has been overlooked in academic literature and yet it is critical for achieving universal health coverage (UHC). There is a lack of empirical evidence on its impact on the effective coverage of maternal health interventions (ECMH) for Indigenous women in Mexico. Documenting progress in reducing maternal health inequities, particularly given the disproportionate impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on ethnic minorities, is essential to improving equity in health systems., Methods: We conducted a population-based, pooled cross-sectional, and retrospective analysis for 2009-2023, using data from the last three waves (2014, 2018, and 2023) of a nationally representative demographic survey (ENADID). Our study included n = 72,873 (N = 23,245,468) Mexican women aged 12-54 with recent live births. We defined ECMH as adequate antenatal care (ANC), skilled and/or institutional delivery care, timely postpartum care, and complication-free postpartum/puerperium. After describing sociodemographic characteristics and maternal health coverage by Indigenous status, we estimated a pooled fixed-effects multivariable regression model to adjust ECMH for relevant covariates. We used the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition for nonlinear regression models to quantify inequities in ECMH due to ethnic-racial discrimination, defined as differences in outcomes attributable to differential treatment., Findings: Indigenous women had lower education, labor market participation, and socioeconomic position, higher parity, and more rural, poorer state residence than non-Indigenous women. They faced significant health coverage loss due to the dismantling of Seguro Popular, a public health insurance mechanism in place until the end of 2019, right before the start of the Covid pandemic. Adjusted ECMH was 25.3% for non-Indigenous women and 18.3% for Indigenous women, peaking at 28.8% and 21.2% in 2013-2018, declining to 25.7% and 18.7% pre-Covid (January 2019 to March 2020), and further declining to 24.0% and 17.4% during Covid, with an increase to 26.6% for non-Indigenous women post-Covid, while remaining similar for Indigenous women. Decomposition analyses revealed that during the analyzed period, 30.8% of the gap in ECMH was due to individual characteristics, 51.7% to ethnic-racial discrimination, and 17.5% to their interaction. From 2009 to 2012, 42.2% of the gap stemmed from observable differences, while 40.4% was due to discrimination. In the pre-Covid-19 phase, less than 1% was from observable characteristics, with 75.3% attributed to discrimination, which remained in the post-Covid-19 stage (78.7%)., Conclusions: Despite modest health policy successes, the ethnic gap in ECMH remains unchanged, indicating insufficient action against inequity-producing structures. Ethnic and racial discrimination persists, exacerbated during the pandemic and coinciding with the government's cancellation of targeted social programs and public health insurance focused on the poorest populations, including Indigenous peoples. Thus, prioritizing maternal and child health underscores the need for comprehensive policies, including specific anti-racist interventions. Addressing these inequities requires the recognition of both observable and unobservable factors driven by discriminatory ideologies and the implementation of targeted measures to confront the complex interactions driving discrimination in maternal health care services for Indigenous women., Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable. This study involved no human participants. Memorial dedication: We dedicate this manuscript to our colleague and friend Sandra Sosa-Rubí, Ph.D., who inspired us to analyse equity during her fruitful lifetime and passed away in March 2021. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

This article explores the political and institutional factors that led two leftist governments to propose sweeping, rather than incremental, changes to earlier objective-oriented health systems reforms. One is the government of Mexico led by President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who in 2019 proposed to replace reforms approved in 2003. His proposal was passed by Congress and implemented. The other is the government of President Gustavo Petro in Colombia, who in 2023 recommended the replacement of the health reform implemented in Colombia since 1993. His proposal was rejected by Congress. Drawing on historical institutionalism, we analyzed the interactions among actors and institutions that shaped their reform proposals, focusing on policy feedback effects and veto points. We examined news articles, government and policy documents, electoral results, presidential approval ratings, and legislative voting records. We also conducted in-depth interviews with key actors about the factors behind the need for reform, the policy proposals, and the public and legislative debates. In both countries, we found that a combination of policy feedback effects (political ideology beliefs, and policy legacies that shape public perceptions and expectations) and veto points (the perceived strength of the president vis-à-vis reform opponents) help explain the decisions to propose such significant changes to the health care systems. Based on these findings, we offer initial recommendations for safeguarding objective-oriented health system reforms in lower-middle and upper-middle-income countries facing stark political change, especially in polarized contexts. Objective-oriented health system reforms should be evidence-based and supported by long-term financing, delivery, management, and evaluation plans. For long-term resilience, they also need multiple networks to secure them, including citizens well informed about their benefits, health workers with a sense of ownership, and legal protections.

Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

The public sector includes social security institutions and institutions that provide services to the population without social security. The private sector includes private insurance companies and service providers working in private offices, clinics, and hospitals. Longer lifespans and exposure to risks associated with unhealthy lifestyles have transformed the leading causes of disease and death. Chronic non-communicable diseases and injuries are increasingly prevalent in the health profile. Health system coverage improved over the last two decades, from less than 50 million people with health insurance in 2000 to over 100 million in 2016. Healthcare in Mexico is financed with public and private resources. Public resources finance partially the institutions that serve the population with contributory health insurance and fully those that serve the population without this labor benefit. Health spending represents 5.5% of gross domestic product. There are 34 756 healthcare units in Mexico. The ratio of doctors per thousand inhabitants is 2.5. Healthcare regulation activities include accreditation of health sciences schools and faculties, licensing and certification of physicians and nurses, and certification of healthcare units. The Comisión Federal de Protección contra Riesgos Sanitarios is responsible for health regulation.

Background: There is an important gap in the literature concerning the level, inequality, and evolution of financial protection for indigenous (IH) and non-indigenous (NIH) households in low- and middle-income countries. This paper offers an assessment of the level, socioeconomic inequality and middle-term trends of catastrophic (CHE), impoverishing (IHE), and excessive (EHE) health expenditures in Mexican IHs and NIHs during the period 2008-2020., Methods: We conducted a pooled cross-sectional analysis using the last seven waves of the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey (n = 315,829 households). We assessed socioeconomic inequality in CHE, IHE, and EHE by estimating their Wagstaff concentration indices according to indigenous status. We adjusted the CHE, IHE, and EHE by estimating a maximum-likelihood two-stage probit model with robust standard errors., Results: We observed that, during the period analyzed, CHE, IHE, and EHE were concentrated in the poorest IHs. CHE decreased from 5.4% vs. 4.7% in 2008 to 3.4% vs. 2.9% in 2014 in IHs and NIHs, respectively, and converged at 2008 levels towards 2020. IHE remained unchanged from 2008 to 2014 (1.6% for IHs vs. 1.0% for NIHs) and increased by 40% in IHs and NIHs during 2016-2020. EHE plunged in 2014 (4.6% in IHs vs. 3.8% in NIHs), then rose, and remained unchanged during 2016-2020 (6.7% in IHs and 5.6% in NIHs)., Conclusion: In pursuit of universal health coverage, health authorities should formulate and implement effective financial protection mechanisms to address structural inequalities, especially forms of discrimination including racialization, that vulnerable social groups such as indigenous peoples have systematically faced. Doing so would contribute to closing the persistent ethnic gaps in health., (© 2023. W. Montague Cobb-NMA Health Institute.)

Competing Interests: We declare no competing interests.

Background: In 2003, the Mexican Congress approved a major reform to provide health care services to the poor population through the public insurance scheme Seguro Popular. This program was dismantled in 2019 as part of a set of health system reforms and substituted with the Health Institute for Welfare (INSABI). These changes were implemented during the initial phases of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. We aimed to examine the impact of these reforms and the COVID-19 pandemic on financial risk protection in Mexico between 2018 and 2020., Methods: We performed a population-based analysis using cross-sectional data from the 2018 and 2020 rounds of the National Household Income and Expenditures Survey. We used a pooled fixed-effects multivariable two-stage probit model to determine the likelihood of catastrophic health expenditure (CHE), impoverishing health expenditure (IHE), and excessive health expenditure (EHE) among Mexican households. We also mapped the quintiles of changes in EHE in households without health insurance by state., Results: The percentage of households without health insurance almost doubled from 8.8% (three million households) in 2018 to 16.5% (5.8 million households) in 2020. We also found large increases in the proportion of households incurring in CHE (18.4%; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 6.1, 30.7) and EHE (18.7%; 95% CI = 7.9, 29.5). Significant increases in CHE, IHE, and EHE were only observed among households without health insurance (CHE: 90.7%; 95% CI = 31.6, 149.7, EHE: 73.5%; 95% CI = 25.3, 121.8). Virtually all Mexican states (n/N = 31/32) registered an increase in EHE among households without health insurance. This increase has a systematic territorial component affecting mostly central and southern states (range = -1.0% to 194.4%)., Conclusions: The discontinuation of the Seguro Popular Program and its substitution with INSABI during the first stages of the COVID-19 pandemic reduced the levels of health care coverage in Mexico. This reduction and the pandemic increased out-of-pocket expenditure in health and the portion of CHE and EHE in the 2018-2020 period. The effect was higher in households without health insurance and households in central and southern states of the country. Further studies are needed to determine the specific effect both of recent policy changes and of the COVID-19 pandemic on the levels of financial protection in health in Mexico., Competing Interests: Disclosure of interest: The authors completed the ICMJE Disclosure of Interest Form (available upon request from the corresponding author) and disclose no relevant interests., (Copyright © 2023 by the Journal of Global Health. All rights reserved.)

2023 marks the 20-year anniversary of the creation of Mexico's System of Social Protection for Health and the Seguro Popular, a model for the global quest to achieve universal health coverage through health system reform. We analyse the success and challenges after 2012, the consequences of reform ageing, and the unique coincidence of systemic reorganisation during the COVID-19 pandemic to identify strategies for health system disaster preparedness. We document that population health and financial protection improved as the Seguro Popular aged, despite erosion of the budget and absent needed reforms. The Seguro Popular closed in January, 2020, and Mexico embarked on a complex, extensive health system reorganisation. We posit that dismantling the Seguro Popular while trying to establish a new programme in 2020-21 made the Mexican health system more vulnerable in the worst pandemic period and shows the precariousness of evidence-based policy making to political polarisation and populism. Reforms should be designed to be flexible yet insulated from political volatility and constructed and managed to be structurally permeable and adaptable to new evidence to face changing health needs. Simultaneously, health systems should be grounded to withstand systemic shocks of politics and natural disasters., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests FMK is President and Founder of Tómatelo a Pecho. FMK participated in the design, financial calculations, and implementation of the Seguro Popular, collaborating with Mexico's Ministry of Health. She is married to JF who was Minister of Health of Mexico from 2000 to 2006. FMK was employed by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Social Development of Mexico during the administration of President Vicente Fox. FMK received research grants from Merck and EMD Serono to the University of Miami outside the scope of the submitted work and from Merck Sharp & Dohme, Avon Cosmetics, and S de R L de C V to Tómatelo a Pecho, all outside the scope of the submitted work. FMK received research grants from the US Cancer Pain Relief Committee to the University of Miami and the Medical Research Council to the University of Miami and Funsalud (Mexican Health Foundation) for work related to palliative care. FMK has also received consulting fees from Merck and EMD Serono and Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico outside the scope of the submitted work. FMK is a member of the Board of Directors of the International Association for Hospice and Palliative Care. FMK collaborates as a Sistema Nacional de Investigadores researcher at the Mexican Health Foundation, where she has been affiliated since 2000. HA-O is a Research Professor of the Institute for Obesity Research of Tecnológico de Monterrey, is Executive Director of Tómatelo a Pecho, and participates as an Associate Researcher at Funsalud (Mexican Health Foundation). HA-O received consultancy fees from Merck through the University of Miami outside the scope of the submitted work and from Merck Sharp & Dohme, Avon Cosmetics, and S de R L de C V to Tómatelo a Pecho, AC outside the scope of the submitted work. HA-O received consultancy fees from the US Cancer Pain Relief Committee to the University of Miami and the Medical Research Council to the University of Miami and Funsalud (Mexican Health Foundation) for work related to palliative care. HA-O collaborates as a Sistema Nacional de Investigadores researcher at the Mexican Health Foundation, where he has been affiliated since 2003. TM receives consulting fees for research and writing from the University of Miami Institute for Advanced Studies of the Americas. OG-D and ES-M were partly funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Global Health Policy and Systems Research researcher-led grant (NIHR150067) using UK aid from the UK Government to support global health research. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the UK Government. OG-D was Director General for Performance Evaluation at the Ministry of Health of Mexico during 2000–06, which was the initial period of implementation of the Seguro Popular. PK was Vice Minister of Health of Mexico from December, 2011, to December, 2018, under the administration of Enrique Peña Nieto. AM-V participated in the design and implementation of the Seguro Popular between 2001 and 2007. AM-V was also Director General of Planning and Evaluation at the National Coordination of the Oportunidades Program between 2009 and 2011. He also served as the Deputy Director General of the Economic Analysis Unit between 2013 and 2016, and Director General of Evaluation between 2013 and 2019, both at the Ministry of Health. JF was responsible for the design and implementation of the Seguro Popular. All other authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: One of the central debates in health policy is related to the fragmentation of health systems. Fragmentation is perceived as a major obstacle to UHC. This article presents the results of a consultation with a group of actors of the Mexican policy arena on the origins and impacts of the fragmentation of the Mexican health system., Methods: We used a consultation to nine key actors to collect thoughts on the fragmentation of the Mexican health system. The group included national and local decision makers with experience in health care issues and researchers with background in health systems and/or public policies. The sessions were recorded, transcribed verbatim and analyzed thematically., Results: Participants defined the term 'fragmentation' as the separation of the various groups of the population based on characteristics which define their access to health care services. This is a core characteristic of health systems in Latin America (LA). In general, those affiliated to social security institutions have a higher per capita expenditure than those without social security, which translates into differential health benefits. According to the actors in this consultation, fragmentation is the main structural problem of the Mexican health system. Actors agreed that the best way to end fragmentation is through the creation of a universal health system. Defragmentation plans should include a research component to document the impacts of fragmentation, and design and test the instruments needed for the integration process., Conclusions: First, health system fragmentation in Mexico has created problems of equity since different population groups have unequal access to public resources and different health benefits. Second, Mexico needs to move beyond the fragmentation of its health system and guarantee, through its financial integration, access to the same package of health services to all its citizens. Third, defragmentation plans should include a research component to document the impacts of fragmentation, and design and test the instruments needed for the integration process. Fourth, defragmentation of health systems is not an easy task because there are vested interests that oppose its implementation. Political strategies to meet the resistance of these groups are an essential component of any defragmentation plan., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

This paper offers a comprehensive picture of the performance of the Mexican health system during the period 2000-18. Using high-quality and periodical data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and Mexico's National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure, we assess the evolution of seven types of indicators (health expenditure, health resources, health services, quality of care, health care coverage, health conditions and financial protection) over a period of 18 years during three political administrations. The reform implemented in Mexico in the period 2004-18-which includes the creation of 'Seguro Popular'-and other initiatives helped improve the financial protection levels of the Mexican population, expressed in the declining prevalence of catastrophic and impoverishing health expenditures, and various health conditions (consumption of tobacco in adults and under-five, maternal, cervical cancer and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) mortality rates). We conclude that policies intended to move towards universal health coverage should count on strong financial mechanisms to guarantee the consistent expansion of health care coverage and the sustainability of reform efforts. However, the mobilization of additional resources for health and the expansion of health care coverage do not guarantee by themselves major improvements in health conditions. Interventions to deal with specific health needs are also needed., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press in association with The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

This paper discusses the origins and content of the framework that guided the creation of the Center for Public Health Research in 1984 and the modernization of the School of Public of Health of Mexico, established in 1922. These two institutions eventually merged with the Center for Research in Infectious Disease to create, in 1987, the National Institute of Public Health of Mexico, one of the leading institutions of higher education and research in public health in the developing world.

During the last two decades, Mexico adopted policies intended to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of medicines procurement in its nationally fragmented health system. In this policy report, we review Mexico's efforts to guarantee access to medicines during three national administrations (from 2000 to 2018), and then examine major health system changes introduced by the current government (2018-2024), which have created significant setbacks in guaranteeing access to medicines in Mexico. These recent changes are having important consequences in the levels of satisfaction of health care users and citizens, household expenditure on health, and health conditions. We suggest key lessons for Mexico and other countries seeking to improve pharmaceutical procurement as part of guaranteeing access to medicines.

Background: Despite having a large indigenous population, little is known about the differences in COVID-19-related health outcomes between indigenous and non-indigenous patients in Mexico. The aim of this study is to analyse the variation in hospitalisation and death between indigenous and non-indigenous patients with COVID-19 to guide future policies and clinical practice., Methods: We used data from the Mexican Ministry of Health (MoH) to study the hospitalisation and death of adults with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 in MoH facilities between 1 March 2020 and 28 February 2021. Predicted probabilities of hospitalisation and death were adjusted for sociodemographic and presentation to care characteristics as well as municipal social deprivation index and health jurisdiction-level index of human resource and hospital equipment availability., Results: Of 465 676 hospitalised adults with COVID-19, 5873 (1.3%) were identified as indigenous. Indigenous patients had higher odds of hospitalisation (adjusted OR (aOR)=1.9, 95% CI 1.8 to 2.0), death (aOR=1.3, 95% CI 1.1 to 1. 3) and early mortality (aOR=1.2, 95% CI 1.0 to 1.4), compared with non-indigenous patients. Living in municipalities with high social deprivation was associated with a higher risk of hospitalisation and early death. Living in areas with low healthcare resources was associated with a higher risk of hospitalisation but not death. Being male, aged 51 years or older, having diabetes, hypertension and obesity were associated with an incremental probability of hospitalisation and death among indigenous patients., Conclusions: Indigenous patients with COVID-19 in Mexico have a higher risk of hospitalisation and death than non-indigenous individuals. Our findings can guide future efforts to protect this population from SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated outcomes., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: To present the results of a stakeholder analysis used to construct a map of the actors involved in the delib-eration of a proposal to increase the tax on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) in Mexico from 10 to 20 percent per liter., Materials and Methods: A literature review and in-terviews to key actors were implemented. The analysis of the actors' power and position was made using Policymaker., Results: There was concern for the obesity epidemic among all stakeholders, but little consensus on the way to solve it. Researchers and non-governmental organizations (NGO) support an increase in the tax on SSB, while government officials and industry representatives oppose this measure., Conclusion: Supporters of an increase to the tax on SSB need to build a coalition in order to force government officials to support this policy and successfully confront the soda industry, which has a solid opposing strategy and enormous financial resources to influence public opinion and congressmen.

Objective: Diabetes is an important risk factor for severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but little is known about the marginal effect of additional risk factors for severe COVID-19 among individuals with diabetes. We tested the hypothesis that sociodemographic, access to health care, and presentation to care characteristics among individuals with diabetes in Mexico confer an additional risk of hospitalization with COVID-19., Research Design and Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study using public data from the General Directorate of Epidemiology of the Mexican Ministry of Health. We included individuals with laboratory-confirmed severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 between 1 March and 31 July 2020. The primary outcome was the predicted probability of hospitalization, inclusive of 8.5% of patients who required intensive care unit admission., Results: Among 373,963 adults with COVID-19, 16.1% (95% CI 16.0-16.3) self-reported diabetes. The predicted probability of hospitalization was 38.4% (37.6-39.2) for patients with diabetes only and 42.9% (42.2-43.7) for patients with diabetes and one or more comorbidities (obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and chronic kidney disease). High municipality-level of social deprivation and low state-level health care resources were associated with a 9.5% (6.3-12.7) and 17.5% (14.5-20.4) increased probability of hospitalization among patients with diabetes, respectively. In age-, sex-, and comorbidity-adjusted models, living in a context of high social vulnerability and low health care resources was associated with the highest predicted probability of hospitalization., Conclusions: Social vulnerability contributes considerably to the probability of hospitalization among individuals with COVID-19 and diabetes with associated comorbidities. These findings can inform mitigation strategies for populations at the highest risk of severe COVID-19., (© 2020 by the American Diabetes Association.)

Una de las primeras iniciativas para llevar atención médica a las comunidades rurales de México fue el servicio social de medicina, el cual se implantó en la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México y en la Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo en 1936, y cuya paternidad se atribuyeron diversos ilustres médicos mexicanos. Este texto precisa las contribuciones de varios actores a la promoción, diseño e implantación de esta importante innovación educativa y de atención a la salud. La principal conclusión de este artículo es que la prestación de servicios de salud a las comunidades rurales por estudiantes de medicina en su último año de carrera en México no fue idea de una sola persona, sino re-sultado de varios esfuerzos encabezados por diversos actores, entre ellos estudiantes y profesores de medicina, sanitaristas y funcionarios universitarios y gubernamentales.

After eight years of a civil war which devastated the country, Spanish flu, one of the worst pandemics in the history of humankind, arrived in Mexico in October of 1918. This article discusses its arrival to the port of Veracruz in ships coming from Habana and New York City; its dissemination from the Gulf of Mexico area to the rest of the country, including Mexico City; and the responses of both federal and local health authorities. Two events associated to this pandemic are particularly relevant, in addition to the high number of deaths: the testing of the sanitary dispositions added to the 1917 Mexican Constitution and the extraordinary role played by civil society organizations., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflict of interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

Objective: To generate evidence on the influence of good management of resources in the delivery of maternal health services in Mexico., Material and Methods: We studied the managerial processes involved in the provision of maternal health services in four states of Mexico exhibiting differences in maternal mortality, maternal health service coverage, and maternal health expenditure. Analysis was based on five analytical dimensions of the cyclic process model designed by the National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy in Mexico. We describe the processes, identify areas of opportunity, and discuss opinions concerning the relevance, timeliness, and sufficiency of human and material resources employed in the delivery of maternal health services., Results: Managerial performance in the four entities was very heterogeneous. In most of the analyzed entities, implementation of the processes was rated from "average" to "very good.", Conclusion: In order to contribute to universal coverage of maternal health services, managerial processes at the state level need to ensure an adequate, timely, and sufficient supply of resources., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

The Haitian health system includes a public and a private sector. The public sector comprises the Ministry of Health and Population (MSPP) and a social security institution (Ofatma). The private sector includes private insurance agencies and providers. MSPP provides health services to the non-salaried population, while Ofatma provides services to the salaried population. Health expenditure in Haiti in 2016 was 5.4% of gross domestic product. Expenditure per capita in health was 38 American dollars. There is a great dependency on foreign resources. The MSPP is in charge of most stewardship functions. The main challenge faced by the Haitian health system is the provision of comprehensive health services with financial protection to all the population. This goal will not be met without additional financial resources, mostly public, and an effort to strengthen health institutions., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflict of interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

This paper discusses the situation of healthcare in Mesoamerica before and immediately after 1519. In the first 50 years after the Conquest, the Spaniards made extensive use of Nahuatl medicine. However, the influence of this medical tradition was limited due to the rapid imposition of a very different medical system which took little advantage of, among other things, the therapeutic wealth of pre-Hispanic healing traditions., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflict of interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

This paper describes the creation of the legal framework and the origin, growth and consolidation of the institutions and interventions (initiatives, programs and policies) that nourished public health in Mexico in the past century. It also discusses the recent efforts to guarantee universal social protection in health. This quest, which lasted a century, developed through three generations of reform that gave birth to a health system that offers protection against sanitary risks, protection of health care quality and financial protection to all the population in the country., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflict of interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the alignment of supply and demand for antenatal care (ANC) in Mexico based on the definition of access provided by Donabedian: the "degree of adjustment" between resources and needs. Alignment was studied in the teenage and adult population of Mexico that lacked conventional social security between 2008 and 2015, a period of expanding financial resources for health and public health insurance coverage. Spatial econometric methods were used to analyze data from the Ministry of Health on the supply and demand for ANC in 2,314 municipalities (94% of all municipalities in Mexico). During this period, the relative weight of ANC demand among adolescents increased 37% while the production of antenatal consultations for adolescent and adult women remained unchanged. Bivariate spatial analyses of correlation between supply and demand for ANC services yielded a minimal spatial correlation, or lack of territorial correspondence, between supply and demand among women in both age groups. Spatial econometric analysis confirmed a non-significant association between supply and demand for ANC services. Our findings suggest the existence of misalignment between supply and demand for these services. This requires a reassessment of the management and delivery of ANC services at the local level in order to increase effective coverage and improve the overall performance of the health system., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Mental and substance use disorders account for 18.9% of years lived with disability worldwide. A rising prevalence of mental disorders was identified in the past decade and a call for global attention to this challenge was made. The purpose of this paper is to discuss new strategies to address mental health problems in developing nations aimed at dealing with them within the frame of the overall health system. Mainstreaming mental disorders implies five dimensions of integration: i) incorporating mental health interventions to the global strategy to address non-communicable diseases; ii)moving away both from the biological and sociological reductionisms around mental health prevalent in the past century; iii) addressing the whole range of conditions related to mental health; iv) migrating from the idea that mental disorders have to be treated in secluded clinical spaces, and v) the use of a comprehensive approach in the treatment of these disorders., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflict of interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

This paper discusses the health challenges faced by countries in Latin America. These challenges have two dimensions: those related to the health needs of populations and those related to the way in which health systems are responding to these needs. The main conclusion is that in order to improve health conditions and move towards universal health coverage, Latin American countries need to design a new generation of policy innovations based on the separation of the three main functions of health systems: financing, delivery and stewardship., (Copyright © 2018 IMSS. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This essay questions the achievements and assessments of the Cuban health system. It argues that health policies in Cuba in the past half century have been implemented with limited concern for civil liberties and certain human rights which are considered a core component of a responsive, transparent, and accountable health system. Three cases are discussed in support of this assessment: 1) the persecution of Cuban analysts who questioned the official version of the socio-economic situation of pre-revolutionary Cuba, including the health state of affairs; 2) the harassment and segregation of gays and people living with HIV; and 3) the violation of labor rights of Cuban physicians working in international missions.