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Gas flaring has been identified as a major contributor to global warming and climate change. It is used either as a safety measure or as a means of disposal for technical or economic reasons. Over 250 toxins have been directly/indirectly associated with gas flaring and its associated emissions. Most of these toxins have been known to have significant inimical impacts on humans' health, plant biodiversity, and the environment. With the recent rise in global energy insecurity, several EU countries have either returned to coal power generation or extended the lifetime of their coal-fired plants thereby increasing anthropogenic carbon emissions. This increase in carbon emission has necessitated the re-evaluate of gas flare practices vis-à-vis the environmental challenges and the financial potentials. This paper presents a holistic review of gas flaring, its types, composition, systems design, estimation methods, social and environmental challenges, the abatement measures, and the re-utilization strategies. It identified the potential to save a minimum of US$10.4 billion globally if more stringent gas flare abatement measures were pursued. Furthermore, the paper highlights the recent trends in flare gas re-utilization technologies such as the production of bioproducts which has been reported to hold a potential for an annual production of about 148 million bbl of biocrude and 67 million metrics of algae protein from 140 bcm of globally flared gas. Finally, it explored the possible way forward and stringent measures that can be pursued to disincentivize gas flare and also increase investments in gas processing technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flares are elevated metallic vertical structures that are used in industries to dispose of flammable gases. It is an essential source of production and emission of greenhouse gases into the air. Therefore, gas flaring detection and identification is very important. The Pars Special Economic Energy Zone (PSEEZ) is one of the industrial areas in the south of Iran. The object of this research is to compare and investigate the potential of two algorithms, RXD and NHI, for the detection of thermal anomalies due to flames of gas flaring in the industries of PSEEZ by Near and shortwave infrared bands of Landsat 8 in 2018 and 2019. The innovation of this research is the first-time use of the RXD algorithm for detection and the utilization of the NHI algorithm at the local scale. The findings represented both algorithms had a high capability for detecting the thermal anomalies of flare during the day. However, the NHI algorithm is more accurate than the RXD algorithm due to taking into consideration the near-infrared band in the detection of thermal anomalies process in the studied area. In the validation section, the RXD rate of the detection algorithm showed over 70% for most months of these two years (2018-2019). This rate was above 80% for the first-NHI index, and it was more than 50% for the second index. In conclusion, the near and shortwave inferred bands of the Landsat 8 have a good capability in detecting thermal anomalies due to the flames of flares, which are located in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses promising areas that contribute to the formation of a closed-cycle economy or, in other words, a circular economy in the Russian fuel and energy complex. The basic principles of the circular economy model aimed at preserving the environment through the transition from linear business models to more closedones and by increasing the efficiency of natural resources use have been outlined. The data on the estimates of the negative impact combustion of associated petroleum gas have been presented, the methods of its rational utilization and further use as raw materials for high-grade products have been analyzed. The petrochemical complex is presented as one of the fundamental elements of the circular economy. The advantages of using biogas as a supplement and alternative to fossil natural gas when moving towards a circular economy have been substantiated. The importance of implementing biogas projects in Russia in modern conditions has been emphasized. Factors’ number of constraining the development pace of the circular economy in the fuel and energy complex sectors have been identified. The key support measures and stimulation of companies by the state have been outlined.

The flaring of large volumes of the natural gas that is produced as a by-product of crude oil, has puzzled the energy-hungry world for long. In recent years, it has also drawn the angst of the environmental and global-warming advocacy groups. The issues behind gas flaring are complex, as they involve a dynamic interplay of geosciences, engineering, economics, finance and natural resource policy-making.The purpose of this research is to analyze the associated gas problem quantitatively from a country-wide perspective. Unlike prior studies, this work focusses on the upstream side where the crucial strategic decisions are made upfront. To this end, a mathematical model is proposed for seeking the optimal integrated management strategy for the said national resource. The model is based on the Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) technique and consists of scores of techno-economic decision variables and constraint equations along with a profit maximization objective.The model is general in nature but is applied herein to Nigeria as a case study. Several simulation runs are made to provide results for explanatory and prediction purposes. Model results indicate, for example, that a minimum gas price of $4.4/Mscf and minimum spend of $22B are jointly required to achieve zero-flaring, yielding a $10B profit. This is achievable via a strategy of reinjecting all associated gas produced from medium and large-sized fields, but gathering and selling all gas from small fields. Capital availability, rather than nationwide government-decreed flaring control, is shown to be the dominant determinant of profitable flaring mitigation. The model has proven to be a valuable tool for establishing the inter-relations between the key problem parameters under various pricing and resource base scenarios, and for prognosticating the trajectory of the gas industry in various jurisdictions.

Gas flaring, a common practice in many countries, has been associated with environmental and health concerns. A recent study in Bangladesh's largest gas field, Kailashtilla, assessed the influence of gas flaring on soil quality in the surrounding areas. Physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics were assessed on soil samples collected from three union zones. Considerable influences have been found on soil quality, with several physical and chemical characteristics failing to meet the standards for healthy plant growth. Heavy metal contamination in the earth's soil was identified, specifically cadmium and lead, having a risk index indicating a moderate risk to the ecosystem in the future. Gas flaring also impacted the amount of bacteria in the soil, with the highest number being found farthest from the flaring zone. The soil was only marginally contaminated and potential health risks found. AAS and digestion methods were used to estimate the content of heavy metal contamination in the soil. To depict the geographically distributed abundance of heavy metals in the study area, the Kriging spatial interpolation procedure was utilized, and PCA and CA were used to assess the condition of soil. Findings indicate that particular gas flaring may have a deleterious influence on soil bacteria, which could have further consequences for the ecosystem. The study is likely to contribute to our understanding of the current state of soil's surrounding gas fields and serve as a platform for future research in this area emphasizing the necessity for sustainable energy methods and the importance of limiting environmental repercussions.

Associated gas flaring during crude oil production is an important contributor to global warming. Satellite technology has made global flaring monitoring possible with high spatial resolution. In this study, we construct a granular database to geographically match global oil and gas fields with remote sensing flaring data from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite from 2012 to 2019. The geographic information system database contains over 50 000 oil and gas fields and around 4700 infrastructure sites (e.g. refineries, terminals) in 51 countries and regions, representing 96% of global oil production and 89% of natural gas production. Over 2900 fields and 140 infrastructure sites in 47 countries contain matching flares. The annual matched flare volume covers 89%-92% of the satellite-estimated flaring volume of these countries and 85%-87% of total worldwide volume detected by the satellite. In 2019, a set of 263 'high-flare' fields (which flare more than 0.1 billion cubic meters per year) account for 67% of the total matched satellite-estimated volume. These fields are mainly concentrated in the Persian Gulf, West and East Siberia, Eastern Venezuela Basin, Permian and Williston Basins in the United States, the Gulf of Mexico, and West and North Africa. Accounting for asymmetric instrument uncertainty suggests that country-level flaring rates are accurate to within -8% to +29%, the global average within 1%.

Detecting gas flaring activities during oil production on a regional scale is necessary, since it emits harmful gases and bring serious global environmental impacts. This study developed a new algorithm to detect gas flare sites (GFs) on daytime Sentinel-2 MSI images and Nighttime NOAA-20 VIIRS images. The algorithm includes three steps: Thermal Anomaly Index (TAI) on single-temporal MSI images was first used to detect potential GFs, then the daily night temperature of potential GFs was calculated based on Planck's law on VIIRS images, and finally the confirmed GFs were filtered based on the detection frequency and temperature. The algorithm was implemented in five regions with different surface covers in the top four countries (Russia, Iran, Iraq, and the USA) in terms of flared gas volumes in 2021. The algorithm achieves an average producer accuracy of 81.7 %, an average user accuracy of 80.3 %, and the root mean square error of the spatial position is 15.6 m for these five test areas. Compared with the existing global datasets of GFs, this algorithm detects the most GFs and the spatial location of the GFs is more accurate, indicating that the proposed method for GF detection has high spatial resolution and the result is reliable. This algorithm could be applied to detect the GFs globally and provide the scientific data to enact efficient measures to alleviate the environmental impacts.

Gas flaring is an environmental problem of local, regional and global concerns. Gas flares emit pollutants and greenhouse gases, yet knowledge about the source strength is limited due to disparate reporting approaches in different geographies, whenever and wherever those are considered. Remote sensing has bridged the gap but uncertainties remain. There are numerous sensors which provide measurements over flaring-active regions in wavelengths that are suitable for the observation of gas flares and the retrieval of flaring activity. However, their use for operational monitoring has been limited. Besides several potential sensors, there are also different approaches to conduct the retrievals. In the current paper, we compare two retrieval approaches over an offshore flaring area during an extended period of time. Our results show that retrieved activities are consistent between methods although discrepancies may originate for individual flares at the highly temporal scale, which are traced back to the variable nature of flaring. The presented results are helpful for the estimation of flaring activity from different sources and will be useful in a future integration of diverse sensors and methodologies into a single monitoring scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a C3/C4's hydrocarbon mixture used as fuel gas, obtained through natural gas processing or crude oil refining. The Ecuadorian LPG production (~1.88 MMbbl/year) comes from the Shushufindi gas plant and the Esmeraldas refinery. However, LPG production cannot meet the Ecuadorian market demand, and over 90% of this commodity is imported. At the same time, the natural gas produced in the Amazon region is not fully valued. A significant quantity of the associated gas is flared (~100 MMscfd), representing wasted energy with a significant environmental impact. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a technical and economic assessment of the potential natural gas valuation in the Amazon region to increase LPG production. The study started with a detailed review of the associated gas produced in the Amazon region. The data were analyzed considering the geographic location of the hydrocarbon fields, molar composition, flowrates, and operational conditions. Then, a natural gas value chain visualization was proposed and technically analyzed. Finally, an economic feasibility (class V) study was conducted, considering a preliminary analysis of capital expenditure (CAPEX) and an economic balance. The outcome of this study showed that by processing 21.50 MMscfd of associated gas from the Sacha field, domestic LPG production could increase by 30.9%. The required infrastructure consists of conventional processes for natural gas processing, with an estimated CAPEX of 36.6 MMUSD. Furthermore, despite the domestic subsidies of commodities, the potential savings for the country would be 32.13 MMUSD/year, an alternative more economically viable than the current LPG imports. Thus, the investment cost will be justified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural gas flaring, with its harmful environmental, health, and economic effects, is common in the Nigerian oil and gas industry because of a lower tax regime for flared gases. Based on the adverse effects of flared gas, the Nigerian government has renewed and improved its efforts to reduce or eliminate gas flaring through the application of natural gas utilisation techniques. However, because the conventional approach to flare gas utilisation is heavily reliant on achieving scale, fuel, and end-product prices, not all technologies are technically and economically viable for typically capturing large and small quantities of associated gas from various flare sites or gas fields (located offshore or onshore). For these reasons, this paper reviews and compares various flare gas utilisation options to guide their proper selection for appropriate implementation in the eradication of routine gas flaring in Nigeria and to promote the Zero Routine Flaring initiative, which aims to reduce flaring levels dramatically by 2030. A qualitative assessment is used in this study to contrast the various flare gas utilisation options against key decision drivers. In this analysis, three natural gas utilisation processes—liquefied natural gas (LNG), gas to wire (GTW), and gas to methanol (GTM)—are recommended as options for Nigeria because of their economic significance, technological viability (both onshore and offshore), and environmental benefits. All these gas utilisation options have the potential to significantly reduce and prevent routine gas flaring in Nigeria and can be used separately or in combination to create synergies that could lower project costs and product market risk. This article clearly identifies the environmental benefits and the technical and economic viability of infrastructure investments to recover and repurpose flare gasses along with recommendation steps to select and optimise economies of scale for an associated natural gas utilisation option.

Today, managing energy consumption in industries has become a necessity. Flaring the combustible gases is the main source of wasting energy in the oil and gas explorations, refineries, and petrochemical industry. Flaring contributes to the release of large amounts of environmental pollutants, such as CO 2 , SO x , NO x , and hydrocarbons, as well as other adverse human and environmental effects. In this regard, flaring reduction or recovery of flared gases has become one of the main concerns of the relevant industries. With 17.40 billion cubic meters (BCM) of annual flared gasses, Iran held the third rank among the top most gas flaring countries in 2021. Flaring such an amount of gas signifies a considerable economic loss as well as the emission of large volumes of greenhouse gasses (GHGs). Air pollution caused by flaring is a long-lasting problem in the oil-rich regions of Iran, while traces of heavy metals have been found in the Zagros ecosystems in the soil and tree leaves. We have also presented the most updated status of flare gas recovery (FGR) projects (AMAK, Kharg NGL, and Siri projects) with some promising results. To analyze the recovery potential of flare gases in Iran, different technologies and decision-making factors have been critically reviewed with the goal of finding the best recovery methods. Based on our study, there are new hopes for investment, particularly from the private sector, despite some resistance in the oil and gas administration. The proximity of Iran's giant petrochemical complexes to the major associated and non-associated gas flaring sites and the feasibility of their utilization as the feedstock signal favorable changes and is a positive outcome of this research. The expected rate of return (ROR) for feedstock production is between 120% and 250% and payback period (PB) between 0.4 and 1.2 years. Due to massive inflation and difficulties in foreign financing and technology transfer, we recommend more straightforward recovery methods despite lower profit. In this regard, apart from feedstock utilization of associated gas, we recommend electricity generation from flare gases for smaller amounts of flaring since the technology is more available and the country is always in shortage of the product (electricity). The ROR and PB for electricity generation are reported to be between 15% and 40% and 2.5–6.5 years, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Associated gas flaring has several consequences on the environment. This study was aimed at assessing the impact of gas flaring on soil enzymes and plant antioxidant activities from gas flare-bearing communities in Nigeria. Soil and plant samples were obtained from farmlands in Ukwa West and Izombe gas flaring sites, as well as unpolluted site from Olokoro (used as control). The level of activities of soil urease, dehydrogenase, phosphatases, plant antioxidant enzymes and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) of selected plants (Gnetum africanum [GA], Piper guineense [PG], Gongronema latifolium [GL], Pterocarpus mildbraedii [PM]) were evaluated using standard methods. The results showed that the activities of urease were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in soil from Ukwa site than Izombe and the control soil. Dehydrogenase (DHA) and phosphatases recorded higher activities (P < 0.05) for Izombe soil than in Ukwa compared with the control. For plants, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione S-transferase (GST) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) recorded a significant (P < 0.05) higher activities in all the plants assayed from Ukwa site than Izombe and the control site. The activities of GPx from GA and PG plants at Izombe site were not significant (P > 0.05) when compared with the control, except for PM and GL which recorded a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in GPX and SOD activities, respectively. The activities of catalase enzyme also decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in all plants grown at Ukwa, while an increase was seen for GA and PM grown at Izombe compared with control. The overall variability in enzymes activities is an indication that soil ecosystem and plants are altered significantly by the stress load from the gas flaring pollutants which could serve as bio-indicators for assessing ecological risks and bioremediation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addition to the waste of resources and economic losses, environmental damage by gas flaring is widespread and significant. Since flaring the associated gas gives no added value in exchange for its pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it could be identified as a top priority for mitigation. Iran is the third gas flaring country after Russia and Iraq among those facing this issue, and is responsible for 12.1% of the world's gas flaring. While the necessity of developing a method for the precise estimation of flaring GHG emissions is clear, especially for evaluating the result of countries' efforts to meet their nationally determined contribution target, there are huge uncertainties and discrepancies in the values of emission factors among various data sources due to the lack of actual measurements of the volume and diversity of the composition of flare gas. This study aimed to fill the gap in providing authentic data on Iran's gas flaring GHG and air pollutant emissions by developing a model based on satellite data on flare volumes, gas compositions, and combustion equations. Our results revealed that based on 2021 data on flaring volume, Iranian gas flares are emitting approximately 50 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent to the atmosphere annually, which could be reduced to 43 by only enhancing the flares' efficiency. It accounted for 5.5%–6% of the total GHG emissions of the country. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:735–748. © 2022 SETAC. Key Points: Iranian gas flares are emitting some 50 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent to the atmosphere annually, accounting for 5.5%–6% of the country's total GHG emissions.Slight increases in the flare's destruction efficiency can cause a huge decrease in its value of global warming potential.The gas flare's emission factors suggested by USEPA would be reliable only if a combustion efficiency of 98% and a destruction efficiency of 99% were considered, while emission factors suggested by Ecoinvent seem to be too optimistic to be true.By taking advantage of fair access to financial opportunities and international cooperation envisaged through the Convention (COP21), the Paris Agreement could be a historic opportunity for the complete elimination of gas flaring from Iran's upstream and downstream oil industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Niger Delta is the Nigerian oil and gas province. About 10 -- 40% of produced associated gas is underutilized and is flared into the environment. Gas flaring is the burning of natural gas and petroleum hydrocarbons in flare stacks by upstream oil companies in oil fields during operations. Flaring operations have adverse impacts on the environmental components and its aquatic resources. This paper reviewed the impacts of gas flaring on aquatic resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. The study revealed the induced thermal impacts on the aquatic environment to include alteration of ionic components, pH, temperature, conductivity, heavy metal concentration especially in rain water which could cause death of aquatic biota. Water toxicity from acid rain and heating from flare stacks had also caused some fish species to become extinct. Exposure to harmful air pollutants generated during incomplete combustion of gas had been linked to a variety of health hazards such as: cancer, neurological, reproductive and developmental consequences. It also affects vegetation leading to decrease in growth and productivity probably due to changes in soil quality parameters in the aquatic environment. Climate change has an impact on both physical and biological habitats, influencing biodiversity both directly and indirectly via interactions with other environmental factors. It is recommended that strict government legislations on how gas production projects may be conducted should be introduced and monitored. Regulatory agencies must fulfil their responsibilities of enforcing laws and regulations to check gas flaring activities in order to protect the aquatic resources of the Niger Delta Region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional macro data distort information on oil and gas exploitation and processing capacities and cannot track the movement of gas combustion. This study proposes a new way to retrieve those capacities and to explore changes in the trajectory of China's oil and gas exploitation and processing centres via gas flaring based on a combination of kernel clustering-kernel principal component analysis (KPCA) and spatial methods. We use data from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) between 2012 and 2016. Results show that the upstream centre of gravity of oil and gas exploitation and processing in China moved to the southwest and the downstream centre of gravity moved to the southeast. Results of Kernel clustering-KPCA show that production, processing and transportation of oil and gas production moved from inland areas to coastal ports. Results from spatial analysis show existence of the influence of inter-regional externalities on the development of oil and gas exploitation and processing. The new economic geography theory provides a theoretical framework to explain the spatial evolution of oil and gas exploration and processing. Empirical findings of the changing path of the oil and gas exploitation and processing centres of gravity and the kernel clustering-KPCA analysis provide a scientific basis for tracking the effectiveness of government environmental policy and for policymaking on mitigation of combustion gases. This novel application extends the utilisation of the VIIRS and can be applied globally for tracking dynamic changes in the centre of gravity of oil and gas exploration and processing. [Display omitted] • Oil and gas exploitation and processing capacities and gravity movement were retrieved. • Kernel clustering analysis was applied to oil and gas exploitation and processing. • The evidence provides insights for policies that reduce gas flaring emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates Nigeria’s commitment to ending gas flaring within the context of the global quest for zero routine flaring by 2030. The combination of strategies deployed by Nigeria has been generally ineffective in inducing compliance from IOCs. The ineffectiveness is linked to both Nigeria’s weak institutional framework and the unattractiveness of economic payoffs associated with investing in gas-gathering infrastructure by IOCs. Using data from secondary sources, the paper locates the non-realization of flare-out dates in the disconnect between legal enactments and economic permutations, especially in view of the huge capital outlay required to develop gas-gathering infrastructure and the uncertainty surrounding the gas market. The paper contends that achieving zero gas flaring in 2020 as planned by Nigeria or 2030 as projected by the international community will entail going beyond present operational arrangements by adopting a holistic implementation strategy that is capable of extracting unconditional compliance from IOCs.

Oil and gas exploration in Nigeria has contributed to global warming and climate change. The growing global impact of climate change and the need for resilience demand action to reform the impact thereof. This article reviews policy responses to reform climate change and global warming in Nigeria in light of oil exploration and gas flaring in the Niger Delta region. A desktop study of related literature, drawn from repositories such as SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, provided policy responses such as the Climate Change Act 2021, the implementation of the Nigeria Gas Flare Commercialisation Programme, and other gas utilisation programmes by the Nigerian National Petroleum Company, the Petroleum Industry Act 2021, and other global commitments to end gas flaring by 2030. The article reviews the provisions of climate change mitigation in these policy responses and how it was implemented in Nigeria. The review revealed the need for more commitment from Nigeria to various international agreements on climate change. It, therefore, recommends, among others, a better utilisation of gas from its oil-rich regions to meet the nation’s power-generation need and other needs.

The search light for environmental rights in Nigeria has been focused on the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 (as amended) with occasional references to case laws, which are limited and unprogressive on the subject. Most reviews of relevant legislations on the environment have been centered on themes such as environmental protection, environmental degradation, and damage arising from pollution. Apart from studies on whether the Constitution guarantees any right to clean environment, inquiries are hardly directed at the provisions of other statutes and policies on the environment on the extent to which they support environmental rights. This paper is a review of some salient legislations on environmental protection with a view to establish legislative authority for the right to clean and a healthy and sustainable environment in Nigeria. There exists a notable legislative platform on which one may insist on the right to clean environment in Nigeria notwithstanding the constitutional constraints on the enforcement of the duty of the Government to protect and improve the environment.

The environment, the climate and human health are largely exposed to gas flaring (GF) effects, releasing significant dangerous gases into the atmosphere. In the last few decades, remote sensing technology has received great attention in gas flaring investigation. The Pars Special Economic Energy Zone (PSEEZ), located in the south of Iran, hosts many natural oil/gas processing plants and petrochemical industries, making this area one of the most air-polluted zones of Iran. The object of this research is to detect GF-related thermal anomalies in the PSEEZ by applying, for the first time, the Reed-Xiaoli Detector (RXD), distinguished as the benchmark algorithm for spectral anomaly detection. The RXD performances in this research field have been tested and verified using the shortwave infrared (SWIR) bands of OLI-Landsat 8 (L8), acquired in 2018 and 2019 on the study area. Preliminary results of this automatic unsupervised learning algorithm demonstrated an exciting potential of RXD for GF anomaly detection on a monthly scale (75% success rate), with peaks in the months of January and February 2018 (86%) and December 2019 (84%). The lowest detection was recorded in October 2019 (48%). Regarding the spatial distribution of GF anomalies, a qualitatively analysis demonstrated the RXD capability in mapping the areas affected by gas flaring, with some limitations (i.e., false positives) due to possible solar radiation contribution. Further analyses will be dedicated to recalibrate the algorithm to increase its reliability, also coupling L8 and Landsat 9, as well as exploring Sentinel 2 SWIR imagery, to overcome some of the observed RXD drawbacks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gas flaring is a common practice in the oil and gas industry that involves the burning of natural gas during the extraction and processing of crude oil. Despite its economic benefits, gas flaring has significant negative impacts on the environment. This paper explores the various ways in which gas flaring affects the environment, including the emission of greenhouse gases, air pollution, acid rain, and the destruction of ecosystems. It used a cross-sectional survey research design in generating the primary data used for the study, while the location of the study is Kurdistan. It used a sample size of 375 from a population of 6000 Oil & Gas company workers in Kurdistan. The findings of the study suggest that the negative impacts of gas flaring on the environment are significant, and requires urgent action to mitigate its effects. This paper provides valuable insights for policymakers, stakeholders and researchers interested in addressing the environmental consequences of gas flaring in the oil and gas industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural gas flaring, with its harmful environmental, health, and economic effects, is common in the Nigerian oil and gas industry because of a lower tax regime for flared gases. Based on the adverse effects of flared gas, the Nigerian government has renewed and improved its efforts to reduce or eliminate gas flaring through the application of natural gas utilisation techniques. However, because the conventional approach to flare gas utilisation is heavily reliant on achieving scale, fuel, and end-product prices, not all technologies are technically and economically viable for typically capturing large and small quantities of associated gas from various flare sites or gas fields (located offshore or onshore). For these reasons, this paper reviews and compares various flare gas utilisation options to guide their proper selection for appropriate implementation in the eradication of routine gas flaring in Nigeria and to promote the Zero Routine Flaring initiative, which aims to reduce flaring levels dramatically by 2030. A qualitative assessment is used in this study to contrast the various flare gas utilisation options against key decision drivers. In this analysis, three natural gas utilisation processes—liquefied natural gas (LNG), gas to wire (GTW), and gas to methanol (GTM)—are recommended as options for Nigeria because of their economic significance, technological viability (both onshore and offshore), and environmental benefits. All these gas utilisation options have the potential to significantly reduce and prevent routine gas flaring in Nigeria and can be used separately or in combination to create synergies that could lower project costs and product market risk. This article clearly identifies the environmental benefits and the technical and economic viability of infrastructure investments to recover and repurpose flare gasses along with recommendation steps to select and optimise economies of scale for an associated natural gas utilisation option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of hydrocarbon fuels increases with population growth and rising standards of living, and so does natural gas flaring. Natural gas flaring is both a waste of natural resources and a violation of Nigeria's energy policy for sustainable development through natural gas conservation. However, it remains the most cost-efficient and effective associated natural gas (ANG) management option in developing countries such as Nigeria. The World Bank's initiative to eliminate routine gas flaring by 2030 has increased the need to limit or eliminate routine gas flaring. Often, studies on natural gas utilisation techniques fail to consider the lack of practical tools that integrate economic, technical, and regulatory factors into a gas flaring management framework, and the intricacies of existing tools, which often come at the expense of simplicity to achieve real-time information output. This paper aims to establish a framework and ANG management tool to reduce regular gas flaring in Nigeria. This research established a management framework (using a flowchart decision tree) and models to provide a user-friendly ANG flaring tool (using a MATLAB graphical front end user interface with back-end ASPEN HYSYS thermodynamic models). This was combined with techno-economic models for liquefied natural gas, gas-to-methanol, and gas-to-wire ANG utilisation options. The tool was then tested with data obtained from Fields Y and X in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The results, considering both economic and technical factors, showed that the choice of liquefied natural gas for Field Y was best due to its proximity to the pipeline infrastructure and its cost-effectiveness, and the availability of a high-demand LNG market for that area. For Field X, gas-to-wire was best due to its proximity to the electrical grid and high electricity requirements for that area. Additional geographical profiles in West Africa and ANG utilisation alternatives were recommended for further investigation. This paper developed and validated a one-of-a-kind ANG flaring management tool that incorporates techno-economic analysis of selected ANG utilisation options to assist operators and investors in making more profitable investment decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of climate change differ from one region to another, as its effects are not the same in all regions of the world. The consequences differ from one region to another, according to its geographical location, or according to the ability of the region and its social and environmental systems to adapt to climate change or mitigate its effects. One of the most important factors of climate change is global warming. There are two major sources of global warming: natural and human. The human resource contributes by adding heat and greenhouse gases to the atmosphere because of the global use of fossil fuels, nuclear energy, burning of natural gas, coal, timber, and others. Natural gas flaring is one of the most important challenges facing energy sources and the environment globally and locally. In this study, light was shed on the flaring of natural gas in Basra Governorate and its impact on the environment and climate change. The results showed that burning natural gas in Basra contributes to changing the local climate by adding heat and greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, which led to an increase in the air temperature in the region. In recent years, it has reached (52 degrees Celsius), and it also affects air pollution by increasing concentrations of toxic gases in the atmosphere, and it is one reason for the increase in the number of cancer patients in Basra Governorate. And there was a strong positive correlation between increased gas burning and an increase in cancer cases.

Nigeria currently contributes significantly to the total amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) produced in Africa through unabated emissions from its oil and gas industry in the Niger Delta, making the country an important player in global climate change mitigation efforts. Gas flaring is the major medium by which Nigeria contributes to the global percentage of deleterious GHGs released into the atmosphere. Therefore, regulatory efforts at the cessation of gas flaring in the country is important within the wider context of global climate change mitigation, and is worthy of analysis. The recent 'code red' warning by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) about the clear and present danger unmitigated climate change currently poses to the planet, together with Nigeria's recent pledge at COP26 to eliminate GHG emissions by 2060, makes this analysis even more necessary. Accordingly, this article generally assesses the efforts of Nigeria at eliminating gas flaring within the context of its international commitments on battling climate change. The first part of the article explores the history and current status of gas flaring in Nigeria. The second part critically analyses the guiding policy, regulatory, legislative, and judicial efforts at ending gas flaring in Nigeria with the view to determining the seriousness of the country in domestically matching its international commitments towards mitigating climate change through the phasing out of GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the last century, crude oil exploitation and exploration have occurred in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. While oil and gas account for a significant 85% of the national GDP, it has caused catastrophic effects on the environment. This is of particular concern, considering the Niger Delta is the breadbasket of Nigeria, inhabited by 31 million people. However, indiscriminate pollution has arisen from oil spills emanating from exploration activities and gas flaring. Since 2014 alone, more than 550 oil spills have been reported. To address this, the Nigerian federal government has developed environmental policies and laws targeted to regulate environmental management. However, the efficacy of these policies remains in question because of the government's unwillingness to enforce the laws. The aim of this paper is to appraise of the effect of the national policies on environmental management with emphasis on the "Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution Control, 1991". We ask the following questions: What are community perceptions of the direct and indirect impacts of oil spills on ecosystems, health, livelihoods, migration and conflict? What are current and desired compensation provided by government bodies, NGOs and oil companies to support local livelihoods impacted by oil spills? What are key statutory and legal frameworks on environmental protection in Nigeria, how effectively are they performing and what are key challenges confronting compliance with regulatory guidelines and standards? To answer these questions, we recruited the activities of 11 focus groups comprising of chiefs, farmers, youth leaders, members of community and social activists groups from each Niger Delta state and engaged them on qualitative focus group discussions and interviews to identify the impacts of oil spills on settlement's socio-economic and environmental conditions. Results were then analyzed with thematic templet analytic techniques. This study reveals a high impact on settlements with diverse factors that have contributed to the increase in social aspects. Existing policies to regulate and control environmental pollution, but the enforcement of standards has been poor. Consequently, biodiversity has been impacted, affects agricultural soil, human health and the source of farming and farming livelihoods of the indigenous people has had to be abandoned by many living in this region. We argue, Nigeria's reliance on revenue generated from crude oil encourages the uninspiring and lackadaisical approach of the government to enforce these policies in the region. To this end, we recommend various environmental policies should be merged and harmonized under one by-law to ensure uniformity and there is an urgent need to implement the 2006 UNDP report which prioritized environmental sustainability, promotes human partnership development and upholds the goals for sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gas flaring, the chief source of toxic pollutants and air pollution in Nigeria, has continued to raise global public health interest. This study attempts to provide comprehensive information on the respiratory disease burden associated with gas flaring in Nigeria, which is not readily available. Studies reporting the incidence and prevalence of respiratory diseases among residents of gas flaring states in Nigeria were systematically reviewed using standardized approved guidelines. Thirteen studies were identified from the data search. The mean pooled prevalence of respiratory diseases among the residents of the gas flaring states was determined using random-effect meta-analyses. The pooled mean prevalence of respiratory disease was 43% (95% CI: 32–54%). Rivers State had the highest prevalence of 53% (95% CI: 34–71%, I2 = 100%, P < 0.00001), 43% (95% CI: 23–63%, I2 = 98%, P < 0.00001) in Delta State, and Akwa-Ibom State had the lowest prevalence of 22% (95% CI: − 11–54%, P = 0.19; I2 = 99%, P < 0.00001). The respiratory illness prevalence of the mixed state study which sampled three Niger Delta states (Rivers, Delta, and Bayelsa) was 75% (95% CI: 70–80%, P < 0.00001), while the study sampling both Bayelsa and Rivers States was 15% (95% CI: 15–16%, P < 0.00001). The test for subgroup difference stratified by region was statistically significant (X2 = 558.29, P < 0.00001, I2 = 99.3%). The prevalence of gas flaring–induced respiratory ailment in gas flaring zones is very high and understudied in Nigeria. This study establishes the ground for assessing the effect of long-term exposure to gas flaring as a risk factor for respiratory illness in Nigeria. It is hoped that information from this study will drive discussion and proactive actions, towards achieving zero carbon emission and reducing gas flaring–induced respiratory illness in Nigeria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a C3/C4’s hydrocarbon mixture used as fuel gas, obtained through natural gas processing or crude oil refining. The Ecuadorian LPG production (~1.88 MMbbl/year) comes from the Shushufindi gas plant and the Esmeraldas refinery. However, LPG production cannot meet the Ecuadorian market demand, and over 90% of this commodity is imported. At the same time, the natural gas produced in the Amazon region is not fully valued. A significant quantity of the associated gas is flared (~100 MMscfd), representing wasted energy with a significant environmental impact. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a technical and economic assessment of the potential natural gas valuation in the Amazon region to increase LPG production. The study started with a detailed review of the associated gas produced in the Amazon region. The data were analyzed considering the geographic location of the hydrocarbon fields, molar composition, flowrates, and operational conditions. Then, a natural gas value chain visualization was proposed and technically analyzed. Finally, an economic feasibility (class V) study was conducted, considering a preliminary analysis of capital expenditure (CAPEX) and an economic balance. The outcome of this study showed that by processing 21.50 MMscfd of associated gas from the Sacha field, domestic LPG production could increase by 30.9%. The required infrastructure consists of conventional processes for natural gas processing, with an estimated CAPEX of 36.6 MMUSD. Furthermore, despite the domestic subsidies of commodities, the potential savings for the country would be 32.13 MMUSD/year, an alternative more economically viable than the current LPG imports. Thus, the investment cost will be justified.

Gas flaring is an environmental problem of local, regional and global concerns. Gas flares emit pollutants and greenhouse gases, yet knowledge about the source strength is limited due to disparate reporting approaches in different geographies, whenever and wherever those are considered. Remote sensing has bridged the gap but uncertainties remain. There are numerous sensors which provide measurements over flaring-active regions in wavelengths that are suitable for the observation of gas flares and the retrieval of flaring activity. However, their use for operational monitoring has been limited. Besides several potential sensors, there are also different approaches to conduct the retrievals. In the current paper, we compare two retrieval approaches over an offshore flaring area during an extended period of time. Our results show that retrieved activities are consistent between methods although discrepancies may originate for individual flares at the highly temporal scale, which are traced back to the variable nature of flaring. The presented results are helpful for the estimation of flaring activity from different sources and will be useful in a future integration of diverse sensors and methodologies into a single monitoring scheme.

Since the shale Oil/Gas revolution, gas flaring and venting in the United States has garnered increasing attention. There is a pressing need to understand the spatial–temporal characteristics of gas flaring and track the associated greenhouse gas emissions. In this context, we use a thermal anomaly index (TAI) incorporating the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud computation and local batch processing for monitoring gas flaring and characterizing its spatial–temporal dynamics. We then apply a quantitative analysis of satellite-based carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) in the gas flaring region. Here, we generate a gas flaring sites inventory in Texas from 2013 to 2022 based on > 83,500 multi-source moderate-resolution images (including 74,627 Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument [MSI] images and 8,969 Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager [OLI] images). Validations and comparisons demonstrate that our method is reliable for MSI and OLI images, with an overall accuracy of > 95 % and a low commission rate and omission rate. We detected 217,034 gas flares from 9,296 flaring sites in Texas, and the majority (>92 %) were found in the central and western regions of the Permian Basin and the Eagle Ford Shale. The number of detected gas flaring sites vastly outnumbered the existing Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) fire products, with an upward trend from 2013 to 2019 and a downward trend from 2020 to 2022. Notably, the gas flaring sites dropped significantly at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic (from December 2019 to May 2020), with the lowest average monthly growth rate of −14.38 %, and fell to the level of mid-2017. Application of gas flaring data identifies the localized greenhouse gas (GHG) emission hotspots in Texas and demonstrates that the increased effect of CH4 released from gas flaring regions was significantly stronger than that of CO2. These findings can provide references for monitoring similar small industrial sources in the future, can be used as an essential supplement to low-resolution fire products, and improve our understanding of CO2 and CH4 emissions from gas flaring at fine spatial scales.

A comparative study to determine the impact of gas flaring (GF) on some phytoconstituents of five commonly used green leafy vegetables was done. Two locations in south-east states in Nigeria, Ibeno in Akwa Ibom State, a gas flaring (GF) community and Nsukka in Enugu State, a non-gas flaring (NGF) community, were used. Five fresh green leafy vegetable samples were used for this study (Amaranthus hybridus, Gnetum africanum, Talinum triangulare, Telfairia occidentalis, and Vernonia amygdalina) and were obtained from community farmlands during the rainy season between August and November, 2016. After collecting and identifying the green leafy vegetables from five different farmlands in GF and NGF areas and at a distance of about 2km radius from the flare site in GF communities, detailed laboratory analysis was done for alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and tannins. For A. hybridus, the flavonoid and tannin contents in NGF community were significantly (p<0.05) higher than in GF community; G. africanum, the alkaloid and tannin contents were higher in NGF community; T. triangulare, the alkaloid content alone was higher in NGF community; T. occidentalis, the alkaloid, flavonoid, saponin and tannin contents were significantly (p<0.05) higher in the NGF community; V. amygdalina, the tannin content alone was higher in NGF community compared to the GF community. Most green leafy vegetables from NGF community produced higher and better phytoconstituent concentrations than the GF community. This can be attributed to the non-pollution of the former environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2019, Nigeria contributed 7, 825 million cubic meters (mln m3/yr) to global greenhouse gas emissions. A legal framework has been developed to curb gas flaring and create the incentive to utilise flare gas, which is derived in part from existing legislation, and from market-based incentives. This developed a mechanism to convert waste gas into wealth while protecting health and the environment - a winning formula. Given that the objective of the framework is to guard against waste and protect the environment, it has wasted an opportunity to convert flare emissions into wealth by creating a framework for the deployment of carbon technologies to guard against the environmental impact of gas flaring. This is pertinent because as the industry transits to low carbon, and as oil exploration is expected to continue in the immediate future, critical stakeholders are now investing in carbon technologies. The legal framework mostly channels its technologydriven approach towards utilising flare gas. However, this article finds that the mechanism for converting flare gas to wealth in the legal framework presents an opportunity to harness the potential carbon technologies to develop mechanisms for capturing and utilising carbon from flare facilities, building other industry ecosystems, and developing other environmentally sustainable value chains. As Nigeria continues to explore its petroleum resources, a framework to encourage its deployment is missing. This article analysis carbon technologies highlighting how they are deployed to tackle emissions and utilise emitted carbon. It also reviews the legal framework for curbing gas flaring in Nigeria and proposes by way of recommendation a legal framework for the deployment of carbon technologies to curb the environmental impact of gas flaring in Nigeria that paves the way for incentivising and developing other environmentally sustainable industrial ecosystems that utilise captured emissions from flare sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Warri, the hub of Nigeria's Niger Delta Region, has witnessed mass immigration of people since the advent of oil and gas. Therefore, this study examined the impact of gas flaring in Warri Refinery, Nigeria. Methods: A noise dosimeter was used to determine the noise levels at the designated points. Air Quality Index was estimated for the concentration of PM10, SOx, NOx, and CO in air measured for three months using standard methods prescribed by USEPA. Results: The noise level reported 100% compliance with the Department of Petroleum Resources, Nigeria but violated World Health Organisation regulations at 60 and 200m respectively. The average values of PM10 at 60 and 200m from the flare were above the limits while the value at 350m from the flare complied only with the Department of Petroleum Resources regulation. Air Quality Index indicated that human exposure to the flared gas at 60, 200, and 350m from Warri Refinery be hazardous and unhealthy for sensitive groups respectively. A close observation of the locals exposes the prevalence of rampant health problems relating to gas flaring such as skin and respiratory ailments. Conclusion: The results revealed that oil and gas production adversely impacted the environment and also reduced the quality of life and means of livelihood of the people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oil and gas exploration in Nigeria has contributed to global warming and climate change. The growing global impact of climate change and the need for resilience demand action to reform the impact thereof. This article reviews policy responses to reform climate change and global warming in Nigeria in light of oil exploration and gas flaring in the Niger Delta region. A desktop study of related literature, drawn from repositories such as SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, provided policy responses such as the Climate Change Act 2021, the implementation of the Nigeria Gas Flare Commercialisation Programme, and other gas utilisation programmes by the Nigerian National Petroleum Company, the Petroleum Industry Act 2021, and other global commitments to end gas flaring by 2030. The article reviews the provisions of climate change mitigation in these policy responses and how it was implemented in Nigeria. The review revealed the need for more commitment from Nigeria to various international agreements on climate change. It, therefore, recommends, among others, a better utilisation of gas from its oil-rich regions to meet the nation's power-generation need and other needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gas flaring is a global problem affecting oil-producing countries. The Nigerian petroleum industry is not an exemption. Gas flaring is responsible for the emission of greenhouse gas, depletion of the ozone layer, global warming, and climate change. The study aims to offer legal panaceas to the menace of gas flaring, which has affected Nigeria's economy. Many scholars have raised concerns and the need for discontinuance of gas flaring in Nigeria due to its adverse effect on oil-producing areas and human health. The study adopts a doctrinal legal research method, exploring both primary and secondary sources of information to achieve its aim. The study finds that weak enforcement of the existing anti-gas-flaring laws in Nigeria made some oil companies flare gas. The study designs a hybrid model or mechanism for combating the menace and advocates that defaulting companies should be made to pay dearly for violation of anti-gas-flaring laws to promote the commercialisation of fled gas. The study recommends stringent enforcement of the Petroleum Industry Act 2021 and advocates replication of the provisions of the anti-gas-flaring laws of other advanced climes, especially the selected case-study countries where gas flaring has been abated. The study further advocates the need for the use of sophisticated or advanced technologies in oil and gas operations. In conclusion, it is believed that if the government adopts and implements stringent laws, it would combat gas flaring in Nigeria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are numerous risks associated with mining and owning cryptocurrencies, and exploring and producing oil and natural gas are highly risky, costly, and controversial. A marriage of digital mining and exploring and producing oil and natural gas has reduced the major risks and costs for both the crypto miner and the petroleum industry. On the one hand, crypto mining requires an enormous amount of electricity, which is not environmentally friendly. On the other hand, when drilling for petroleum resources, natural gas is often discovered, but due to a lack of resources or pipeline availability, a massive amount of natural gas is vented into the atmosphere or burned (called flaring). Today, however, this normally wasted gas (called stranded natural gas) is being used to create cheap electricity for mining server containers stationed near drilling rigs, which are used to create cryptocurrencies. This results in reduced CO2 emissions, lower costs for drillers, and greater royalties going to landowners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gas flaring is a major source of air pollution and a chief contributor to climate change. Addressing the adverse social, environmental, and economic impacts of gas flaring has therefore been identified as a fundamental objective of energy policy in oil- and gas-producing countries across the world. Despite this recognition however, gas flaring remains a significant threat to energy justice worldwide, especially in resource-rich Middle Eastern and African (MEA) countries. In Nigeria, for example, as far back as 1979, the primary legislation fixed 1 January 1984 as the deadline for all energy operators to stop gas flaring. More than three decades later, Nigeria remains one of the highest gas flaring countries on earth, with significant adverse social, environmental, and human rights impacts on local communities. While a number of existing studies have documented the perennial failure of gas flaring regulation and policies in Nigeria and other MEA countries, a detailed examination of the energy justice gaps that limit the design and implementation of gas flaring reduction policies has remained absent. This article fills a gap in this regard. Drawing lessons from Nigeria, this article analyzes the energy justice dimensions of regulatory failure in the design and implementation of gas flaring policies. Various legal and institutional drivers of regulatory failures in gas flaring reduction policies are examined in order to identify the ways in which an energy justice governance framework can help close these gaps. The study suggests that conceptualizing and elaborating the energy justice dimensions of gas flaring in energy policy design, enacting stringent and coherent gas flaring legislation, promoting the transparent reporting and disclosure of statistical data on gas flaring reduction programs, and reforming regulatory institutions to ensure coherent implementation of gas flaring policies are significant steps towards overcoming regulatory failure in the design and implementation of energy policies on gas flaring reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the oil extraction procedure, natural gases escape from wells, and the process of recuperating such gases requires important investments from oil and gas companies. That is why, most often, they favor burning them with flares. This practice, which is frequently employed by oil-producing companies, is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions. Under growing demands from the World Bank and environmental defenders, many producer countries are devoted to decreasing gas flaring. For this reason, several researchers in the oil and gas industry, academia, and governments are working to propose new methods for estimating flared gas volumes, and among the most used techniques are those that exploit remote sensing data, particularly Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Nighttime Light (NTL) ones. Indeed, it is possible to extract, from such data, some physical parameters of flames produced by gas flares. In this investigation, a linear spectral unmixing-based approach, which addresses the spectral variability phenomenon, was designed to estimate accurate physical parameters from VIIRS NTL data. Then, these parameters are used to derive flared gas volumes through intercepting zero polynomial regression models that exploit in situ measurements. Experiments based on synthetic data were first conducted to validate the proposed linear spectral unmixing-based approach. Second, experiments based on real VIIRS NTL data covering the flare, named FIT-M8-101A-1U and located in the Berkine basin (Hassi Messaoud) in Algeria, were carried out. Then, the obtained flared gas volumes were compared with in situ measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Gas flaring in the Niger Delta releases particles which are dispersed over a wide area and have impacts on the environment and human health. The study aimed at assessing the extent of dispersion of PM10 emitted from gas flares in flow stations. Eight selected flow stations in Rivers and Bayelsa states were investigated. The concentrations of PM10 emitted from the flare stacks were monitored 60 m away from the flare stack using a hand-held Met One AEROCET 531 combined Mass Profiler and Particle Counter. Meteorological parameters such as wind speed, ambient temperature and relative humidity were monitored during the sampling campaign. PM10 and meteorological data were analysed for simple and descriptive statistics using SPSS for Windows (version 21.0). Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory Model (HYSPLIT) was adopted to predict the dispersion of PM10 from the flow stations. Results Results revealed the range concentrations of PM10 from the flow stations (FS 1–8) as 19.9 µg/m3 at FS 1 to 55.4 µg/m3 at FS 8. The maximum concentration of PM10 at FS 8 was higher than the World Health organisation limit of 50 µg/m3. The dispersion of PM10 emitted from FS 1, 4 and 7 in April 2017, had a fitting spread over Port Harcourt City. Conclusions The modeling results revealed dispersion of PM10 from the flow stations to 14 states in Nigeria. This suggests possible detrimental health and environmental effects of PM10 on residents in the identified states.

Monitoring changes in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission is critical for assessing climate mitigation efforts towards the Paris Agreement goal. A crucial aspect of science-based GHG monitoring is to provide objective information for quality assurance and uncertainty assessment of the reported emissions. Emission estimates from combustion events (gas flaring and biomass burning) are often calculated based on activity data (AD) from satellite observations, such as those detected from the visible infrared imaging radiometer suite (VIIRS) onboard the Suomi-NPP and NOAA-20 satellites. These estimates are often incorporated into carbon models for calculating emissions and removals. Consequently, errors and uncertainties associated with AD propagate into these models and impact emission estimates. Deriving uncertainty of AD is therefore crucial for transparency of emission estimates but remains a challenge due to the lack of evaluation data or alternate estimates. This work proposes a new approach using machine learning (ML) for combustion detection from NASA’s Black Marble product suite and explores the assessment of potential uncertainties through comparison with existing detections. We jointly characterize combustion using thermal and light emission signals, with the latter improving detection of probable weaker combustion with less distinct thermal signatures. Being methodologically independent, the differences in ML-derived estimates with existing approaches can indicate the potential uncertainties in detection. The approach was applied to detect gas flares over the Eagle Ford Shale, Texas. We analyzed the spatio-temporal variations in detections and found that approximately 79.04% and 72.14% of the light emission-based detections are missed by ML-derived detections from VIIRS thermal bands and existing datasets, respectively. This improvement in combustion detection and scope for uncertainty assessment is essential for comprehensive monitoring of resulting emissions and we discuss the steps for extending this globally.

The use of hydrocarbon fuels increases with population growth and rising standards of living, and so does natural gas flaring. Natural gas flaring is both a waste of natural resources and a violation of Nigeria’s energy policy for sustainable development through natural gas conservation. However, it remains the most cost-efficient and effective associated natural gas (ANG) management option in developing countries such as Nigeria. The World Bank’s initiative to eliminate routine gas flaring by 2030 has increased the need to limit or eliminate routine gas flaring. Often, studies on natural gas utilisation techniques fail to consider the lack of practical tools that integrate economic, technical, and regulatory factors into a gas flaring management framework, and the intricacies of existing tools, which often come at the expense of simplicity to achieve real-time information output. This paper aims to establish a framework and ANG management tool to reduce regular gas flaring in Nigeria. This research established a management framework (using a flowchart decision tree) and models to provide a user-friendly ANG flaring tool (using a MATLAB graphical front end user interface with back-end ASPEN HYSYS thermodynamic models). This was combined with techno-economic models for liquefied natural gas, gas-to-methanol, and gas-to-wire ANG utilisation options. The tool was then tested with data obtained from Fields Y and X in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The results, considering both economic and technical factors, showed that the choice of liquefied natural gas for Field Y was best due to its proximity to the pipeline infrastructure and its cost-effectiveness, and the availability of a high-demand LNG market for that area. For Field X, gas-to-wire was best due to its proximity to the electrical grid and high electricity requirements for that area. Additional geographical profiles in West Africa and ANG utilisation alternatives were recommended for further investigation. This paper developed and validated a one-of-a-kind ANG flaring management tool that incorporates techno-economic analysis of selected ANG utilisation options to assist operators and investors in making more profitable investment decisions.