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This paper investigates how investments in automation affect the gender pay gap. The evidence of the effects of automation on the labor market is growing; however, little is known about the implications of automation for the gender pay gap. The data used in this paper are from a matched employer–employee dataset incorporating detailed information on firms, their imports, and employee–level data for Estonian manufacturing and service employers for the period of 2006–2018. Through the use of the imports of automation goods as a proxy for the introduction of automation at the firm level, this paper estimates the effect of automation using simple Mincerian wage equations. The causality of the effect is further validated using propensity score matching (PSM). We find that introducing automation enlarges the gender pay gap, and PSM confirms that this also has a higher causal effect on the wages of male employees than female employees. The results imply that a higher representation of women in higher-paid positions does not guarantee a reduction in the gender pay gap in the presence of automation, and appropriate measures in education and retraining are needed to tackle the effect of automation on gender inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employer Wage Subsidy Caps and Part-Time Work. I See i Kelly, Erin L. Yang, Duanyi, Erin L. Kelly, Laura D. Kubzansky, and Lisa Berkman. I See i Kelly, Erin L. Wright, Chris F. I See i Arnholtz, Jens. Schatz, Ronald W. I The Labor Board Crew: Remaking Worker-Employer Relations from Pearl Harbor to the Reagan Era. i Reviewed by Joseph A. McCartin. Employer Wage Subsidy Caps and Part-Time Work. [Extracted from the article]

We examine the effects of self-control and risk aversion on the gender wage gap in Australia. We also include the Big Five personality traits to compare the interaction between all three as well as other traditional determinants of wages. We find that both self-control and risk aversion play a significant role in explaining the Australian gender wage gap. Furthermore, their effects on the gender wage gap are still significant in the presence of the Big Five personality traits. We find risk aversion plays a role through gender differences in endowments of it, rather than gender differences in its effect on wages. In contrast, we show that gender differences in the return of self-control and personality on wages explain almost one-third of the unexplained gender wage gap in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a sample of recently graduated college students from South Korea, we estimate the effects of the between-majors and within-major gender wage gap. We use a recentered influence function to decompose the wage differential between majors and find that women face a higher rate of return to the field of study. In addition, women tend to select their program of study with the intention of optimizing their earnings potential relative to men. In calculating the within-major gender wage gap, we control for selectivity into a field of study extending the current methodology to a multinomial logit setting. We test our model using a sample of new graduates from South Korea. We consider six college majors. The within-major wage differential ranged from 8.2% for natural science graduates to 17% for social science graduates. After selection is accounted for, the gender wage gap becomes smaller in humanities graduates but increases in natural science and medicine graduates. Decomposing the selection correction term into explained and unexplained factors eliminates discrimination in medicine and points to reverse discrimination in natural science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid expansion of precarious employment carries risks of exacerbating the gender wage gap in China. This article finds an inverse relationship between flexibility and security in the labor market, disproportionately affecting women workers. Drawing from the Marxist-feminist theory of social reproduction, the study conceptualizes China’s social reproduction regime as developmentalist, characterized by ongoing tension between economic development and social reproduction. Promoting precarious work, which reflects the operational logic of the developmentalist social reproduction regime, is essentially transferring social reproduction cost from capital to labor. This cost is predominantly shouldered by precarious workers, particularly women, resulting in a widened gender wage gap. Using the China Labor-force Dynamic Survey, the study finds empirical support for the theorization that the gender wage gap among precarious workers is significantly larger than among non-precarious workers. The article proposes policies addressing the gap by shifting the cost of social reproduction from labor back to capital.HIGHLIGHTSGender wage gap is wider among precarious workers in China.Marxist-feminist theories help us to better understand GWG in precarious work.Women in precarious work face income loss risks and heavier domestic responsibilities.Developmentalist social reproduction regime seeks to balance growth and reproduction.The cost of social reproduction should be shifted back to capital.Gender wage gap is wider among precarious workers in China.Marxist-feminist theories help us to better understand GWG in precarious work.Women in precarious work face income loss risks and heavier domestic responsibilities.Developmentalist social reproduction regime seeks to balance growth and reproduction.The cost of social reproduction should be shifted back to capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using UK data supplied by universities, this paper confirms that women academics earn less than men, even after controlling for a range of covariates. Despite narrowing after 2004/05, the observed (unconditional) pay gap was still −0.089 in 2019/20, while the conditional pay gap was relatively unchanged remaining at around −0.050 in 2019/20. The results are consistent with the literature on why pay gaps might occur, with the key disparity occurring when women face a higher cost of investment and statistical discrimination, linked to bias, to achieve promotion. That is, the results presented here suggest that earnings gaps are significantly reduced when grade-balanced gender sub-groups are compared, suggesting conditional wage differences are more likely due to bias rather than any inherent differences in (research) productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study gives voice to US women who overcame the challenges of their gender or race and had to switch jobs or industries to achieve success in the journalism and public relations professions. A feminist theoretical approach was adopted to conduct in-depth qualitative interviews with 18 racially diverse journalists and public relations practitioners over the age of 50 who reflected on their professional mobility in different stages of their careers and in different organizational settings. Regardless of the industry and type of organization, women shared firsthand experiences of gender inequalities in pay and career progressions, double standards in physical appearance, and subtle sexism. Minority journalists and public relations practitioners reported instances of subtle racial inequalities and gendered racism. Women who switched from journalism to public relations found more flexibility in the workplace but did not necessarily improve their job security. Participants' accounts underscored the need for recruiting, retaining, training, and empowering employees of diverse genders, races, ethnicities, and ages and addressing implicit sexism and implicit racism in all communication industries. This research also calls for improved industry standards that allow older women, especially women of color, to have more opportunities for leadership and professional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We develop a new equilibrium model in which households' labour supply choices form the link between sorting on the marriage market and sorting on the labour market. We first show that in theory, the nature of home production—whether partners' hours are complements or substitutes—shapes equilibrium labour supply as well as marriage and labour market sorting. We then estimate our model using German data to empirically assess the nature of home production, and find that spouses' home hours are complements. We investigate to what extent complementarity in home hours drives sorting and inequality. We find that home production complementarity strengthens positive marriage sorting and reduces the gender gap in hours and in labour sorting. This puts significant downward pressure on the gender wage gap and on within-household income inequality, but fuels between-household inequality. Our estimated model sheds new light on the sources of inequality in today's Germany, and—by identifying important shifts in home production technology toward more complementarity—on the evolution of inequality over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper develops a method to estimate workers' outside employment opportunities. We outline a matching model with two-sided heterogeneity, from which we derive a sufficient statistic, the "outside options index" (OOI), for the effect of outside options on earnings, holding worker productivity constant. The OOI uses the cross-sectional concentration of similar workers across job types to quantify workers' outside options as a function of workers' commuting costs, preferences, and skills. Using German micro-data, we find that differences in options explain 20% of the gender earnings gap, and that gender gaps in options are mostly due to differences in the implicit costs of commuting and moving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article "Technology and Women's Empowerment" explores how technology, particularly information and communication technologies (ICTs), can empower women by improving their skills, knowledge, job opportunities, and access to markets and essential services. While technology has the potential to empower women, there are still barriers such as limited access to technology, unaffordable internet services, and gender disparities in underdeveloped nations. The book emphasizes the importance of governments and nonprofit groups in addressing these disparities and ensuring women are not left behind in the digital economy. It also highlights the intersection of technology with other aspects of identity, such as race and class, and advocates for more intentional outreach and training programs for marginalized communities to close the digital gender divide. [Extracted from the article]

Objective Background Method Results Conclusion We assess how the distribution of parents across firms contributes to parenthood wage gaps in a low‐wage US labor market and examine the role of understudied compensating differentials relevant to precarious work.In the United States, parenthood drives a wedge in wages, as mothers often earn less than women without children, whereas fathers typically earn more than men without children. Firms bear influence over setting wages and sorting workers, yet firms are largely omitted from research on parental wage gaps in the United States.We draw on novel employer–employee matched data on 74,086 hourly service‐sector workers to decompose parental wage gaps into their within‐ and between‐firm components. We leverage uniquely rich data on compensating differentials to test if they sort parents across firms.We found that mothers are overrepresented in lower‐wage firms, accounting for 68% of mothers' wage gap. In contrast, fathers' wage gap accrued within firms. We found limited evidence that compensating differentials, even schedule quality, produce parental wage gaps.We show for the first time that in a major US industry, mothers are segregated in low‐paying firms compared to women without children, while fathers are paid more than men without children in the same firms. Our findings largely do not tell a story of parents voluntarily choosing between wages and job quality, instead calling for more research on firm practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the gender pay gap within Portugal's informal economies, analyzing data spanning the years 2005 to 2020 using Vector Error Correction Models (VECM). The study focuses on four key variables: employers (total), wage and salaried workers (female), wage and salaried workers (male), and educational attainment by way of completing a minimum of upper secondary schooling among a population of age 25+. The findings reveal nuanced relationships among these variables: educational attainment (EA) positively impacts the total number of employers within Portugal's informal economies. A significant correlation exists between EA and wage and salaried workers (female), albeit with complex dynamics. Similarly, EA correlates with wage and salaried workers (male), though the influence is less pronounced. EA also demonstrates a significant association with educational attainment through completing upper secondary schooling among a population of age 25+. These results underscore the multifaceted nature of the gender pay gap within informal economies, influenced by a variety of factors beyond education. Policymakers and stakeholders should consider these findings when designing strategies to promote gender equality in this critical sector, recognizing the need for comprehensive and context-specific approaches. Further research is encouraged to deepen our understanding of this issue and inform evidence-based interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In Canada, a new federal public dental insurance plan, being phased in over 2022–2025, may help enhance financial access to dental services. However, as in many other countries, evidence is limited on the supply and distribution of human resources for oral health (HROH) to meet increasing population needs. This national observational study aimed to quantify occupational, geographical, institutional, and gender imbalances in the Canadian dental workforce to help inform benchmarking of HROH capacity for improving service coverage. Methods: Sourcing microdata from the 2021 Canadian population census, we described workforce imbalances for three groups of postsecondary-qualified dental professionals: dentists, dental hygienists and therapists, and dental assistants. To assess geographic maldistribution relative to population, we linked the person-level census data to the geocoded Index of Remoteness for all inhabited communities. To assess gender-based inequities in the dental labour market, we performed Blinder-Oaxaca decompositions for examining differences in professional earnings of women and men. Results: The census data tallied 3.4 active dentists aged 25–54 per 10,000 population, supported by an allied workforce of 1.7 dental hygienists/therapists and 1.6 dental assistants for every dentist. All three professional groups were overrepresented in heavily urbanized communities compared with more rural and remote areas. Almost all dental service providers worked in ambulatory care settings, except for male dental assistants. The dentistry workforce was found to have achieved gender parity numerically, but women dentists still earned 21% less on average than men, adjusting for other characteristics. Despite women representing 97% of dental hygienists/therapists, they earned 26% less on average than men, a significant difference that was largely unexplained in the decomposition analysis. Conclusions: Accelerating universal coverage of oral healthcare services is increasingly advocated as an integral, but often neglected, component toward achieving the health-related Sustainable Development Goals. In the Canadian context of universal coverage for medical (but not dentistry) services, the oral health workforce was found to be demarcated by considerable geographic and gendered imbalances. More cross-nationally comparable research is needed to inform innovative approaches for equity-oriented HROH planning and financing, often critically overlooked in public policy for health systems strengthening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Female physicians with children often work fewer hours and take fewer shifts due to additional family responsibilities. This can contribute to a gender pay gap in the medical profession. However, limited research in Japan has quantitatively examined the factors contributing to this gap. This study aims to address this gap in the literature. Methods: We analyzed the alumni data from a medical school in Hokkaido, Japan, for 260 physicians (198 males and 62 females). We used multivariable regression models to identify factors influencing earnings from medical practice, with a focus on gender, work schedules, parenthood, and any career interruptions related to childcare. Results: Our analysis revealed a 25.0% earnings gap between male and female physicians. Nearly all female physicians with children experienced career interruptions due to childcare, while this was uncommon for male physicians. When these childcare-related interruptions were factored in, the gender pay gap narrowed by 9.7%. After adjusting for work schedules and specialty choices, female physicians with children still earned 37.2% less than male physicians, while those without children earned only 4.4% less. This suggests that motherhood is a significant driver of the gender pay gap among physicians. Conclusions: These findings highlight the negative impact of motherhood on female physicians' earnings. This emphasizes the need for policy measures to mitigate the disadvantages faced by mothers in the medical profession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present research aims to reveal the characteristics of the gender pay gap phenomenon in domestic external trade in goods as a gap-filling analysis. Relying on the data between 2019 and 2022, we point out that the basic international trends can also be observed in the case of companies involved in domestic external trade in goods, i.e. with the increase in the size of the company and the higher the position, the gender wage gap clearly increases. The presence of the glass ceiling can also be easily identified in the case of entities dealing with external trade in goods, so female managers are typically pushed out of the management of companies with more than 50 employees. However, when examining the results side, companies managed by men contribute to the development of the external trade in goods turnover in Hungary with an average of five times greater per capita import performance and almost eight times greater per capita export performance, i.e. between the average income of women and men in the field of external trade in goods, as well as their contribution to external trade in goods a positive relationship can be identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the effects of eliminating Gender Pay Gap on income and poverty. Drawing upon the European Statistics on Income and Living Conditions for Portugal, we use econometric tools to estimate the counterfactual earnings. The results obtained over the period under study (2014, 2017 and 2019) show that the average hourly income of women would increase by around 38%; the average annual income of households with women in the labor market would be around 22% higher; the poverty indicators would fall by 5% points; single female households and Madeira region would show a more significant decline in poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tests the effect of randomly providing information on trade-specific earnings on trade choice of men and women applying to a vocational training program in the Republic of Congo. When receiving this information, both men and women apply to be trained in more lucrative trades. As a result, treated women are 28.6% more likely to apply to a traditionally male-dominated trade. These findings suggest that this kind of low-cost information intervention can be an effective way to reduce the gender gap in earnings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics data, we study selection bias and the gender wage gap. Employing several methods, we find large declines in the total and unexplained gender gaps in wage offers between 1981 and 2015. Under our preferred selection correction method, the median total and unexplained gaps fell by 0.378 and 0.204 log points, respectively. These are larger declines than if we had not corrected for selection and simply measured convergence in observed wage gaps. However, substantial selectivity-corrected median gender wage gaps remain in 2015: 0.242 log points (total gap) and 0.206 log points (unexplained gap). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the plausibility of using prejudice-based discrimination to explain the wage differences among young men and women in eleven European countries. Utilizing a sample of over 20,000 individuals and estimating a series of country-specific regression models that adjust for ability and selection bias, we find evidence that leads to a good possibility of prejudice-based discrimination in Greece, Italy, Spain, Czechia, Hungary, and the UK. In the UK, this possibility of discrimination is mitigated to an extent by gender differences in credentials. In Austria, Germany, Denmark, and Switzerland, we find no evidence for prejudice-based discrimination. Oaxaca decompositions reveal that if women's own human capital characteristics were rewarded at the same level as men's in the former (six) countries, they would expect a wage gain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study quantifies the drivers of the gender pay gap among medical doctors in the British public sector, both at the mean and across the earnings distribution. We make comparisons to private sector doctors, as well as to other public sector health professionals and find that the substantial 22% hourly gender pay gap among public sector doctors, which is predominately unexplained by personal and work-related characteristics, is far larger than in these comparator occupations. Our evidence suggests sector–occupation-specific drivers of gender pay inequality among public sector doctors, which are particularly pronounced at the top end of the wage distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the changes of gender wage gap in urban and rural areas and examines the effect of wage structure and unobserved characteristics on the gap by using the Chinese Household Income Project (CHIP) survey in 2013 and 2018. We document a significant increase of the gender wage gap in both areas as well as among rural‐to‐urban migrants. By applying Katz and Murphy's supply‐demand framework, we find that the demand has shifted toward younger, more educated workers, and the demand for male workers is higher than that for female workers during the time. The Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition of gender wage gap suggests that factors, such as occupation, parenthood status, and industry, have contributed to the expansion of wage gap. Furthermore, the Juhn–Murphy–Pierce decomposition of the change in gender wage gap implies that the expansion is owing to rising discrimination against females and gender‐specific factors such as observed and unobserved characteristics that have performed unfavorably for females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study estimates the long‐term effect of parenthood on labor market outcomes and explores the variations within this effect by gender and education. We use the event study method to track changes in a range of labor market outcomes from 3 years before to 8 years after the first birth, with a sample of 556 married women and 528 married men from the Korea Labor and Income Panel Study (KLIPS). We find that women experience an immediate drop in wages following birth, whereas men experience continuous wage growth even before birth. The decline in women's wages arises largely from their withdrawal from the labor market, while the increase in men's wages could be explained by a positive selection bias among fathers. In addition, mothers' wage trajectories do not vary significantly by education level, whereas other labor market outcomes show discernible trends. These patterns are the opposite of those observed for men. The findings indicate that severe gender inequality in the Korean labor market lowers the wages of mothers, regardless of their education, while the wages of fathers are more likely to be affected by education. Based on the findings, we make policy suggestions for improving the work‐family balance for all genders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compare men and women who are displaced from similar jobs by applying an event study design combined with propensity score matching and reweighting to administrative data from Germany. After a mass layoff, women's earnings losses are about 35% higher than men's, with the gap persisting 5 years after displacement. This is partly explained by women taking up more part-time employment, but even women's full-time wage losses are almost 50% higher than men's. Parenthood magnifies the gender gap sharply. Finally, displaced women spend less time on job search and apply for lower-paid jobs, highlighting the importance of labor supply decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analysis of gender gaps in time allocation is a recurrent topic of research, and gender differentials in both paid and unpaid work have been documented in different regions and periods. We analyse the gender gap in time allocation in fifteen Latin American countries, offering a comparison of two time periods (a five-year difference), along with an explanation based on social norms and institutional factors. We document gender gaps in both paid and unpaid work, and show that the gender gap in unpaid work has decreased in all countries, although this gap is not heterogeneous in terms of size. More traditional social norms are related to greater gender inequalities in paid and unpaid work, while countries with better, more family-friendly policies and a greater representation of women in politics and in the labour market exhibit smaller gender differentials in working time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Korea's gender wage and employment gaps are among the largest in the OECD. Using labour force survey data over 2010–19, we estimate gender wage and employment gaps, and child earnings penalties, for women aged 25–54. We show (i) that the large gender gaps in South Korea's labour market are mostly not a function of differential sorting by gender along education, occupation, or industry lines, (ii) that caring for children (and, perhaps increasingly, for the elderly) is the major factor inhibiting women's labour force participation, and (iii) that large gender wage gaps exist even for women without care responsibilities. These findings suggest that improving opportunities for work–family balance is crucial to helping increase women's labour force participation, but may do little to close gender wage gaps: other major obstacles also appear to stand in the way of Korean women's full inclusion in the labour force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this note we study how the share of workers in a corporation located in a high gender wage gap country impacts the wage gap in their home country operations. Our findings support the hypothesis that firms with strong intra-firm linkages to a high gender wage gap country also display a relatively large gender wage gap at home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Applying decomposition methods to data from the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, we highlight the importance of performance‐related pay to the contemporary UK gender pay gap. We find that the lower probability of females being employed in performance‐related pay jobs explains a sizeable proportion of the gender pay gap, particularly at the top end of the annual earnings distribution. The latter is driven by its influence within the private sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The document "Income Distribution, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence, Explanations and Policies" published in the journal "Economies" explores the challenges of income inequality and poverty globally. It discusses various factors contributing to these issues, such as energy crises, government policies, and global events like the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic. The document presents 11 original articles that delve into specific regions and global perspectives, offering insights for policymakers and researchers seeking to address inequality. It also highlights the need for further research on climate change, technological advancements, health inequality, gender wage inequality, wealth distribution, and global migration to enhance understanding and develop effective policy solutions. [Extracted from the article]

Women are underrepresented in business, academic, and political decision-making bodies across the world. To investigate the causal effect of gender representation on multilateral negotiations, we experimentally manipulate the composition of triads in a majoritarian, divide-the-dollar game. We document a robust gender gap in earnings driven largely by the exclusion of women from alliances rather than differential shares within alliances. Experiments with different subject pools show that distinct bargaining dynamics can underlie the same inequitable outcomes; gender-biased outcomes can be caused by outright discrimination, but they can also be driven by more complex dynamics related to differences in bargaining strategies. Although replacing the male with a female majority all but eliminates the gap in one pool, it has minimal effect in the other. These findings show that there is no "one-size-fits-all" solution to the gender gap we uncovered and highlight the importance of studying bargaining dynamics in detail. This paper was accepted by Marie-Claire Villeval, behavioral economics and decision analysis. Funding: A. Baranski recognizes financial support from Tamkeen [under the New York University Abu Dhabi Research Institute; Grant CG005]. J. Tremewan acknowledges funding from the Agence Nationale de la Recherche [Grant ANR-21-CE03-0018 (Project ENDURA)]. Supplemental Material: The online appendix and data files are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2022.01800. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An understanding of differences in nonmonetary work conditions is fundamental for a complete characterization of individuals' well-being at work. Thus, to fully characterize gender inequalities in the labor market, scholars have begun to explore gender differences in nonmonetary work conditions. We examine one such condition—meaningful work—using nationally representative survey data linked with worker and employer administrative data. We document a large and expanding gender gap in meaningful work, wherein women experience their jobs as more meaningful than men do. We then explore patterns underlying this difference. We find little correlation between women's higher experience of meaningful work and either labor market decisions related to first parenthood or women's underrepresentation in leadership jobs. Instead, the gender gap appears to be highly correlated with the sorting of more women into occupations with a high level of beneficence: the sense of having a prosocial impact. Though both women and men experience such jobs as more meaningful, women do so by a larger margin. Next, we consider the relationship between the gender difference in meaningful work and the gender wage gap, contributing to the discussion on compensating differentials in work amenities. We find that, whereas the gender gap in meaningful work closes a substantial part of the wage gap in lower paid jobs, it does little to close the gap in higher paid jobs in which the gender wage gap is largest. This paper was accepted by Yan Chen, behavioral economics and decision analysis. Funding: J. Rickne received financial support from the Wallenberg Academy Fellow Grant, the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life, and Welfare 2019-01251. O. Folke received financial support from the Swedish Research Council 2018-00703_VR, The Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life, and Welfare 2019-01251. Supplemental Material: The online appendix and data are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2022.01807. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are substantial gender gaps in earnings once children are born in many developed countries, despite similar education levels of men and women and accessible childcare facilities. I examine whether gender norms are a driver of women's higher labour market costs of having children using Dutch administrative data. Exploiting large local variation in gender norms in the Netherlands, I compare parents from the Dutch bible belt, where gender norms are on average less egalitarian, with parents from other regions in the Netherlands, where gender norms are more egalitarian. My findings show that having children leads an about 30% larger earnings decrease for women in the bible belt, mainly driven by a larger reduction in working hours. I rule out that differences in pre-child parental characteristics and institutions such as childcare availability explain this result and argue that different gender norms in these two areas likely explain this finding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores how gender and age interact in shaping beliefs about fair pay through a factorial survey experiment conducted with German employees. Respondents evaluated hypothetical worker descriptions varying in age, gender, and earnings. While no gender gap in fair earnings was found for the youngest hypothetical workers, a significant gap favoring men emerged with increasing age. This suggests that male workers receive a higher age premium on fair earnings than female workers. The findings highlight the need to understand how gender interacts with other characteristics to legitimize workplace inequalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the various career path types and impact factors that influence the career trajectory of PhD graduates, with a view to understanding how they pursue their careers inside and/or outside the academic sector after graduation. Based on data from the Austrian graduate tracking system ATRACK (N = 24,610), seven distinct career types were created. The first three of these career types target a consistent stay within the higher education (HE) sector, a consistent stay within the research and development (R&D) sector, or a consistent stay within the research sector (either HE or R&D). Our findings indicate that approximately one-third of PhDs remain within the Austrian research sector, while another third consistently pursue careers outside of it. On the one hand, the income of graduates 36 and 120 months after graduation indicates that earnings outside the higher education (HE) sector are significantly higher. On the other hand, the gender pay gap is also more evident outside the HE sector. In light of these findings, it becomes pertinent to question whether the prevailing academic career orientation in PhD programmes remains an accurate reflection of the professional requirements of the labour market, and whether it should be further adapted to ensure a diverse range of employment opportunities within and beyond academia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the increase of the share of highly-educated women, gender wage gap remains an ongoing issue in developing countries. The increase in women's education would provide them with more job opportunities resulting in higher employment rate amongst women and, thus, lower gender pay gap. In Palestine, the share of women with high education is 62% while their labor force participation rate is only 18%. This paper examines the effects of gender higher education on wage inequality in the Palestinian context. The study applied the Mincer equation to study the determinants of wage, while the decomposed Gini coefficient is used to measure the contribution of education and other factors to overall wage inequality. The study used data from the labor force survey (LFS) which is conducted by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) covering the period from 2010 to 2020. Results show that those with higher education have relatively higher wages as compared to those with only high education or with school education. Results also show that gender wage inequality has increased during the study period (2010–2020), but the contribution of both gender and education differences to the overall wage inequality has decreased. In general, the gender pay gap remains a crucial issue in the Palestinian context with a persisting decreasing pay gap over time across all education levels. Policymakers shall orient efforts towards investing in women's education, thus increasing their empowerment in the labor market, which in turn would improve the level of development and economic growth in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyse the effect of education on gender parity in wage employment in sub‐Saharan African countries. The data used cover a panel of 43 countries over the period 2000–2019. The two‐stage least squares method is used. The results show that secondary and tertiary education and gender parity in education improve gender equality in wage employment. Therefore, to reduce gender inequality in wage employment, African countries should promote gender equality, particularly in secondary and tertiary education, by adopting policies to alleviate the conditions and costs of schooling for girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Men and women are well aware of the gender pay gap. The present study involved four experiments (N = 341, student sample, N = 203 general population sample) in which we indirectly measured empathy by asking participants to rate the non-complex and complex emotions they felt when reading a scenario in which a woman described her pay situation. Experiments 1 (equal pay vs. unequal pay) and 2, 3 & 4 (angry vs. depressed reaction to pay inequality) investigate differences in empathy arousal between men and women by assessing their emotions. Globally, both men and women identified correctly emotions expressed by the women victim of pay inequity. On complex emotions, women express more other suffering emotions than men, only in Experiment 4. Coupled with expression of guilt/shame for men only, these results are discussed in the perspective of future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender equality is one of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda. However, in the advertising industry, several studies have shown the low presence of women working in the field of creativity, occupying management positions and being part of festival juries. The aim of the study is to analyse the presence of women in the field of advertising festivals. The methodology is based on a quantitative analysis of the 2000 to 2023 editions of the Club de Creativos National Creativity Awards and the Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity. The composition of the juries of both festivals, the special awards for professionals in the sector (cdec de Honor and Lion of St. Mark, respectively), the technical specifications of the grand prizes (National Grand Prize for Creativity and Grand Prix won by Spain, respectively) and the management teams of the organising entities are analysed in the indicated period. The results demonstrate the underrepresentation of women in advertising festivals, especially in the composition of the juries, in the special recognitions and in the technical sheets of the most outstanding campaigns, corroborating the findings of previous research. Despite the emerging initiatives that defend parity in the advertising profession, this equality is still not real, nor does it materialize in the events that make the industry visible and recognize its evolution: advertising festivals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines 'feminist chatbots' as tools for activism through automation. Such bots aim to engage users in automated communication on feminist concerns. The article starts from the assumption that chatbots, like all technologies, have politics and that automation, including the automated communication of chatbots, is a feminist issue. We investigate how feminist chatbots mobilise automation to address societal inequalities and bias. Conceptually, the article draws on technofeminism and intersectionality as lenses for understanding the potential of chatbots to reflect activist concerns. Three different chatbots are analysed, using a cultural (case) studies approach: F'xa, Gender Pay Gap Bot and Betânia. The analysis suggests that feminist chatbots oppose mainstream automation by engaging users in communication about its sociotechnical risks and using automation to inspire feminist (data) activism. Yet challenges remain in designing such bots, partly because of platform dependencies and the limits of automating complex intersectional issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research shows that firms and jobs are more important for understanding gender wage inequalities than individual-level and occupational-level attributes. I investigate how two mechanisms derived from relational inequality theory, opportunity hoarding and exploitation, affect within-firm gender wage gaps. First, men might exclude women from high-paying firms or jobs (i.e. opportunity hoarding), resulting in gender wage inequalities. Second, male managers might use their relational power to redistribute wages from females to males (exploitation). Increasing the number of female managers might stop this exploitation. While previous literature focused on the effect of female managers on the gender wage gap, I contribute to the literature by also considering the impact of female managers on males' wages theoretically and empirically. Using German linked employer-employee data and fixed-effect regressions at the firm and job levels, I find evidence for opportunity hoarding at both the firm and the job levels. For the exploitation mechanism, female managers increase females' wages and lower males' wages, suggesting the existence of the exploitation mechanism. Further analyses show that the increases in females' wages are proportional to the decreases in males' wages. Thus, I find evidence for female managers redistributing males' wages to females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Work from home (WFH) arrangements may provide an opportunity to reduce gender gaps in labor market outcomes by reducing the gender differences in the willingness to commute. Using a stated-preference experiment among German employees, we estimate workers' valuation of working from home and its impact on willingness-to-pay to avoid commuting by gender after the end of the COVID pandemic. We show that workers are willing to give up 7.7% of their earnings for full WFH and 5.4% for 2-day WFH on average. The willingness-to-pay for WFH steeply increases with commuting distance, in line with WFH reducing the need for long commutes for many workers. Importantly, we find that WFH reduces, but does not close, the gender gap in willingness-to-pay to avoid commuting. This result is unaffected by accounting for underage children in the household. This suggests that hopes of technology closing the gender wage gap are premature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite growth in the number of women pursuing business and entrepreneurship careers, dominance of masculine traits associated with these occupations persists. If business schools use language that subconsciously reinforces gendered stereotypes, students might perpetuate sexist expectations. Using a natural language text processing tool to analyze the written responses of 247 undergraduate students in a US‐based university, we found that student perceptions of entrepreneurs are associated with more masculine characteristics compared to student perceptions of business people. To some degree, female students were more likely to make these associations than male students. Our findings suggest that business schools must do their part to break the cycles that elevate masculine characteristics of entrepreneurship. The negative effects of this manifest in the persistent gender pay gap, rising but still minority numbers of women entrepreneurs, continued practices of rewarding masculine traits in organizations, and ongoing underrepresentation of women students in schools of business. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite efforts to close the gender wage gap in the US, research shows that progress has stalled over the past two decades. Factors contributing to this gap include implicit gender bias, disproportionate caregiving responsibilities, and a lack of strong policies. Minority women are disproportionately affected by this gap, and the "motherhood penalty" and "fatherhood premium" also exacerbate the problem in gendered workplaces. Addressing implicit bias and stereotypes at the organizational level, along with implementing more equitable family, compensation, and caregiver-friendly policies, is crucial. Training programs that identify and address implicit bias can lead to fairer compensation and promotion practices. Policylevel changes such as banning salary history and revising paid-leave policies are also essential. Human resource professionals play a key role in creating a supportive organizational culture and addressing implicit bias. Comprehensive strategies are needed to address the gender wage gap, including policies supporting paid leave, salary transparency, and reassessment of minimum wage policies. Overall, a combination of policy changes and organizational efforts is needed to mitigate the complex factors contributing to the gender wage gap in the US. Pay equity is not only important for women's economic security but also for the broader economy's growth and sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"The War Against Boys" by Christina Hoff Sommers, reviewed in the Canadian Journal of Education, discusses the issue of boys' underachievement in education and its potential impact on the economy. The author argues that despite strides in education for women, male underachievement has worsened, emphasizing the need to address this reality. The review highlights how classroom strategies have shifted to favor girls, potentially contributing to boys' disengagement in education. The book challenges the notion of equal outcomes as a measure of equal opportunity, providing insights into gender disparities in education. [Extracted from the article]

More than 50 years have passed since the Equal Pay Act of 1964, and women are still paid less than men. United States universities claim to be pioneers of social progress and so it is of interest to know whether the gender wage gap exists there. This study sheds light on the academic gender wage gap by comparing the salaries of male and female assistant professors within three years of being hired at selected U.S. public universities. The group of assistant professors are likely to satisfy our exchangeability assumption because early career faculty tend to come with similar experience. Finally, we focus on public university faculty because their salaries are publicly available. The data studied was collected from salary reports from public university systems in 2018 and 2019 under the Freedom of Information Act. Due to the novel way of assigning gender using genderize.io, traditional statistical methods for comparing two populations are not appropriate. For this reason, this study uses permutation-based non parametric tests that are valid for the data. Our study examines the presence of the gender wage gap in U.S. public universities and finds that significantly more women receive lower salaries than men. For example, the proportion of women making less than $10,000 a month is 12% higher than the proportion of men making the same amount. The study concludes that gender disparities within academic disciplines are a considerable factor contributing to the wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use a database composed of 2,545 Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) worldwide for the period 2008–18 to explore the effect of a larger share of women's workforce on both staff wages and overall monetary compensation within MFIs. MFIs are different from other industries, as they are traditionally women‐centered, i.e. they have a significant share of women employees at every level of the corporate hierarchy and mostly serve women clients. Applying both traditional estimation methodology and techniques aimed at accounting for possible endogeneity among the main variables, we find that a higher proportion of women on staff significantly increases the average expense per worker (which also includes the incentive components of remuneration) while the effects are considerably smoothed (or not significant) on the base salary. This leads us to conclude that, unlike what is seen in other sectors of the economy, MFIs do not pay women less. Yet, significant positive effects of women in the workforce, especially on average overall monetary compensation, suggest that women are likely to exploit their superior skills and/or gender affinity advantages with customers of the same gender to enhance MFIs' efficiency and profitability, thereby achieving higher incentive compensation, mostly in the form of bonuses and other benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the evolution of income and wage inequality in Portugal from the 1974 democratic revolution up to 2020, drawing on a series of administrative records, survey data and aggregate statistics. Over this period, Portugal consistently ranked among the most unequal nations in the developed world. The transition from a deeply unequal dictatorial regime, in the wake of the 1974 revolution, brought about substantial redistribution. However, since the 1980s, income and wage inequality followed an arc‐shaped trajectory. There was a sharp rise in inequality from the early 1980s to the mid‐1990s, which, in just eight years, outpaced the infamous US growth in wage inequality of the last five decades. Then, there was stability at high levels until the mid‐2000s. Finally, there was a sharp decline in inequality until 2020, which halved both the gender wage gap and the college wage premium. Changes related to the supply and demand for education/skills emerged as key drivers of inequality dynamics. Institutional and political forces were especially relevant in reducing inequality during the transition to democracy and, more recently, with the rising importance of the minimum wage and collective bargaining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effects of low-skilled immigration inflows on the motherhood gaps in wages among high-skilled women. Applying IV methods to U.S. census and ACS data, this paper first confirms previous findings in the literature that mothers are less willing to increase their work hours than childless women with inflows of low-skilled immigrants. However, the main contribution of the paper is showing that as the low-skilled labor supply increases, high-skilled mothers achieve more wage improvement than otherwise identical nonmothers. The findings in this paper imply that an increase in the low-skilled labor supply reduces the gender pay gap among high-skilled native workers, and most importantly, it is driven by women with children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate gender disparities in the effect of COVID-19 on the labor market outcomes of skilled Ugandan workers. Leveraging a high-frequency panel dataset, we find that the lockdowns imposed in Uganda reduced employment by 69% for women and by 45% for men, generating a previously nonexistent gender gap of 20 p.p. Eighteen months after the onset of the pandemic, the gap persisted: while men quickly recovered their pre-pandemic career trajectories, 10% of the previously employed women remained jobless and another 35% remained occasionally employed. Additionally, the lockdowns shifted female workers from wage-employment to self-employment, relocated them into agriculture and other unskilled sectors misaligned with their skill sets, and widened the gender pay gap. Pre-pandemic sorting of women into economic sectors subject to the strongest restrictions and childcare responsibilities induced by schools' prolonged closure only explain up to 65% of the employment gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]