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[Display omitted] Seeking effective ways to maintain cellular homeostasis is crucial to the survival of organisms when they encounter osmotic stress. Glycine betaine (GB) is a widely generated natural osmolyte, but its endogenous production and action are limited. Herein, a kind of nonionic surfactant dodecyl-β-d-glucopyranoside (DG) and a common polymer polyethylene glycol (PEG) are proven to have the ability to enhance the osmotic stress (induced by sugar concentration changes) tolerance of cell and organism models, those are giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) and gram-negative Escherichia coli. DG or PEG only induces small size decrease and certain shape change of GUVs. Importantly, DG or PEG at the concentration 100 times lower than that of GB effectively increases the survival rate of bacteria under both hypoosmotic and hyperosmotic conditions. This intriguing result is attributed to the insertion of DG or adsorption of PEG in the lipid bilayer membrane, leading to enhanced membrane permeability. These exogenous substances can replace GB to facilely and highly efficiently augment adaptation of organisms to osmotic stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding salt tolerance mechanisms is crucial for addressing the global challenge of soil salinization and advancing sustainable agricultural practices. Dunaliella tertiolecta, thriving in up to 4.5 M NaCl, is a model for studying salt tolerance mechanisms. Two betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) genes were identified in D. tertiolecta, namely DtBADH1 and DtBADH2. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that DtBADH1 had similarity to Pseudomonas aeruginosa BADH, while DtBADH2 has high homology to aldehyde dehydrogenase from Chlorella sorokiniana. The 3D models of DtBADH1 and DtBADH2 docking with betaine aldehyde were performed to further validate their binding site, interactions binding the protein and its substrate as well as the conserved amino acids responsible for enzyme activity. We also conducted RNA interference of DtBADH1 and DtBADH2 in D. tertiolecta. Compared to the wild type D. tertiolecta, both BADH-RNAi D. tertiolecta had fewer cell numbers and relatively lower glycine betaine content under high salinity. The findings suggest that both DtBADH1 and DtBADH2 play a crucial role in betaine synthesis, indicating their potential involvement in salt tolerance mechanisms at the molecular level. Additionally, these results highlight D. tertiolecta as a promising candidate for identifying salt stress-responsive genes, which could be utilized for engineering algae or crops to enhance their ability to withstand salinity stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quality decline resulting from senescence and fungal invasion is a crucial factor that impacts the economic value of fruit. The present study aimed to reveal the impacts of 10 mmol L−1 glycine betaine immersion for 10 min on cell wall degradation in 'Qiujin' apples during storage at ambient condition for 15 d. The results showed that glycine betaine exhibited higher levels of soluble solids content, flesh firmness, and water-insoluble pectin, while also delaying the increase in mass loss, total colouration difference, and water-soluble pectin content. Furthermore, glycine betaine effectively restrained the enzymatic activities and gene expressions of pectate lyase, pectin methylesterase, polygalacturonase, cellulase, β-galactosidase, and β-glucosidase, thereby inhibiting the reduction in water-insoluble pectin content and the formation of water-soluble pectin. These findings suggest that glycine betaine can preserve the postharvest quality of 'Qiujin' apples by suppressing the activity and gene expression of key enzymes involved in cell wall metabolism, as well as reducing respiratory rate and ethylene release. In conclusion, the utilisation of glycine betaine treatment may present an effective technique for alleviating softening in postharvest apples and can serve as a promising natural alternative to synthetic chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought stress poses a significant threat to crop productivity worldwide, necessitating innovative approaches to mitigate its adverse impact on crops. This study investigates the combined effects of methyl jasmonate and Pseudomonas fluorescens (P. fluorescens) under drought conditions in providing resilience to mustard plants (Brassica juncea) by bolstering antioxidative defense mechanisms, elevating secondary metabolite production, and promoting osmolyte accumulation. Under drought stress, mustard plants exhibited reduced growth and increased oxidative stress markers malondialdehyde and H2O2. However, the application of MeJA and P. fluorescens resulted in a substantial improvement in plant growth, as indicated by increased photosynthesis and shoots and root biomass with decrease in oxidative stress. This enhancement was attributed to an upregulation of antioxidative enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione reductase which collectively reduced reactive oxygen species levels and prevented oxidative damage. Furthermore, in combination they significantly enhanced the production of secondary metabolites and osmolytes enabling mustard plants to maintain cellular turgor and osmotic balance under drought conditions together with improved stress tolerance. In conclusion, these findings provide valuable insights into sustainable strategies for improving crop resilience to drought, with potential applications in agriculture to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on crop production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sweet cherry is a high-value crop, and strategies to enhance production and sustainability are at the forefront of research linked to this crop. The improvement of plant status is key to achieving optimum yield. Biostimulants, such as glycine betaine (GB) or seaweed-based biostimulants [e.g., Ecklonia maxima (EM)], can represent a sustainable approach to improving plant conditions, even under adverse environmental circumstances. Despite their potential, few studies have focused on the effects of GB or EM exogenous application on sweet cherry tree physiology. To address this lack of research, a study was conducted in a Portuguese sweet cherry commercial orchard, using Lapins and Early Bigi cultivars. Trees were treated with products based on GB and EM at two different concentrations [GB 0.25% (v/v) and GB 0.40% (v/v); EM 0.30% (v/v) and EM 0.15% (v/v)], a combination of the lowest concentrations of both biostimulants (Mix —GB 0.25% and EM 0.15%), and a control group (C) treated with water. Applications were performed over three consecutive years (2019, 2020, and 2021) at three different phenological stages, according to the BBCH scale: 77, 81, and 86 BBCH. Results showed, in general, that the application of biostimulants led to improvements in water status as well as significantly lower values of electrolyte leakage and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances compared to C samples. Additionally, biostimulants reduced pigment loss in the leaves and enhanced their biosynthesis. The Chlorophylla/Chlorophyllb ratio, ranging from 2 to 4, indicated a greater capacity for light absorption and lower stress levels in treated leaves. Soluble sugar and starch content decreased during fruit development in both cultivars and years; however, biostimulants increased these contents, with increments of approximately 15% to 30% in leaves treated with EM. Soluble protein content also showed the same pattern for treated leaves. Biostimulants, especially EM, demonstrated a significant positive effect (p ≤ 0.001) on total phenolic content, with increases of approximately 25% to 50% in treated leaves. In conclusion, the application of biostimulants, especially algae-based, significantly improved tree performance by enhancing physiological parameters and stress resilience and could represent a novel approach in fruit production systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lead (Pb) toxicity is a major environmental threat that severely affects growth and production of staple crops. Foliar applications of glycine betaine (GB) have been extensively studied for their ability to stimulate heavy metals (HMs) tolerance in plants. Despite that, no literature reports are available on the ameliorative behavior of GB application on barley cultivars under Pb stress. A pot experiment was conducted to assess the relative efficacy of exogenous GB (2 mM) supplementation on various morphological (spike length) yield (no. of spikelet spike−1, no. of grains spike−1, grain yield plant−1, and 1000 grain weight) and grain quality traits (carbohydrate and protein content) of two barley cultivars (BH946 & BH959) under three levels of Pb stress treatments, viz. control, 15, 25, and 35 mM. Current research results revealed that Pb stress significantly (p < 0.05) decreased barley plants' yield traits and grain quality characteristics. More reduction was observed at the highest Pb stress, i.e., 35 mM. However, the foliar application of GB significantly (p < 0.05) mitigates the toxic effect of Pb stress and improves the yield traits, and ultimately, the grain yield per plant increases. Moreover, GB addition also enhances the quality of barley grain by improving the protein and carbohydrate content. The present research findings exhibit the ameliorative role of foliar-applied GB in enhancing the yield, and quality traits of barley cultivars might be attributed to modulating plant growth, photosynthetic activities, the antioxidant defense system, and diminished oxidative stress under Pb toxicity. According to the t-test results, both cultivars displayed the same trend under each stress and GB supplement. Therefore, only one cultivar can be considered for the experiment setup out of the two for further studies. In conclusion, GB at 2 mM concentrations successfully mitigates the toxic effect of Pb (up to 35 mM) and its implication might be recommended for crops suffering from Pb stress to improve their yield and quality traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to investigate the effect of stress modulator application on safflower tolerance to water deficit stress, an experiment was conducted at the Research Center for Agriculture and Natural Resources of Balochistan in delete 2020 and 2021. The experiment followed a split-plot design based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The main plot of the experiment consisted of three levels of irrigation, specifically irrigation after 70, 140 and 210 mm of cumulative evaporation. The sub- plot included six levels of stress modulators and gibberellic acid, namely no-foliar application, glycine betaine, proline, ascorbic acid, and tocopherol. Means comparison interaction effects between years under water deficit stress with foliar application showed that in the first year, the irrigation after 210 mm of cumulative evaporation with the application of gibberellic acid led to a significant increase in the number of seed per boll and seed yield by 11.7 and 13.44%, respectively. A significant increase was observed in the number of seeds per boll with ascorbic acid application, the number of boll per m2 with tocopherol application, and the seed yield with gibberellic acid application, by 13, 77.4 and 109%, respectively, in the second year as compared with no foliar application. Overall, the findings of this study demonstrate that the foliar application of stress modulators and gibberellic acid effectively mitigated the negative effects associated with irrigation after 210 mm of cumulative evaporation in safflower plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of chelated fertilizers at specific concentrations could serve as an efficient method to mitigate the effects of drought stress in plants, considering it a global climatic issue. The objective of this study was to ascertain the influence of potassium and zinc chelate fertilizers on improving drought tolerance in quinoa plants. The experiment was conducted over two cropping years, 2018–2019 and 2019–2020. It followed a split-plot factorial design within a randomized complete block layout, in three replicates. The results indicated that the foliar application of the combined treatment of 50K + 50Zn significantly increased grain yield, particularly in the Q26 cultivar, under drought-stress conditions. However, the best harvest index was related to the Q26 cultivar under 100Zn application conditions. Nevertheless, the application of chelated fertilizers significantly enhanced these traits under stress compared to the non-application conditions. Furthermore, the content of glycine betaine and proline in the plant increased under the influence of 100K and 100Zn applications in the Q29 cultivar in 25% FC. Based on the obtained results for Catalase enzyme activity at 25% FC and in the presence of 100Zn foliar application and for Peroxidase at 25% FC and the presence of the combined 50K + 50Zn foliar application in the Q29 cultivar, the highest activity of these enzymes was observed. Consequently, considering the increased contents of glycine betaine and proline in the foliar application, as well as the enhanced activity of antioxidant enzymes contributing to improved drought tolerance in these plants, the application of potassium and zinc chelates as fertilizers is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Salt stress is a major abiotic factor that negatively impacts the growth, performance, and secondary metabolite production in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) plants. Brassinosteroids (BRs) play a crucial role in enhancing plant tolerance to abiotic stress, yet their potential in mitigating salt stress in pepper plants, particularly by promoting sugar and glycine betaine accumulation, remains underexplored. In this study, we investigated the effects of the foliar application of 2,4-epibrassinolide (EBR) on salt-stressed pepper seedlings. Our findings revealed that EBR treatment significantly increased the levels of proline, sugar, and glycine betaine under salt stress compared to untreated controls. Moreover, EBR enhanced the antioxidant defense mechanisms in pepper seedlings by increasing sugar and glycine betaine levels, which contributed to the reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This experiment was conducted at the Fruit Research Institute, MAREM, Eğirdir-Isparta, Turkey, to detect the effects of different glycine betaine doses in drought stress conditions on young pear trees in 2019. The pear trees used in the study were one-year-old Deveci (Pyrus Comminus L.) variety grafted onto OHxF 333 rootstock. There were three different irrigation treatments in the experiment. Treatments were I100 treatment—available soil water reached field capacity for each irrigation, 100% (control); I50 treatment—irrigated with 50% of the water used in the I100 treatment (50% water deficit, moderate stress); I25 treatment—irrigated with 25% of the water used in the I100 treatment (75% water deficit, severe stress). Four different GB doses were used: GB0: 0, control; GB1: 1 mg L−1; GB5: 5 mg L−1; and GB10: 10 mg L−1. GB was not applied to pear trees in the I100 treatment. That is, there were nine different treatments in this study. GB applications provided a 19% increase in Pn of both the I25 and I50 treatments. According to the results of gsw, gsw increased between 18.0% and 27.8% for GB50 and GB25 treatments, respectively. In total, 10.9% and 14.8% increasing rates in shoot length were detected in GB10 applications in both the 50% and 75% water deficit treatments. The highest trunk diameter and fresh root weight results were determined in 10 mg L−1 GB dose applications under 50% water deficit conditions (I50GB10). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought is considered the main agricultural menace, limiting the successful realization of land potential, and thereby reducing crop productivity worldwide. Therefore, breeding maize hybrids with improved drought tolerance via genetic manipulation is necessary. Herein, the multiple bud clumps of elite inbred maize lines, DH4866, Qi319, Y478 and DH9938, widely used in China, were transformed with the Escherichia coli betA gene encoding choline dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.99.1), a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of glycine betaine from choline, using Agrobacterium to generate betA transgenic lines. After 3–4 consecutive generations of self-pollination in these transgenic plants, progenies with a uniform appearance, excellent drought tolerance, and useful agricultural traits were obtained. We evaluated the drought tolerance of T4 progenies derived from these transgenic plants in the field under reduced irrigation. We found that a few lines exhibited much higher drought tolerance than the non-transformed control plants. Transgenic plants accumulated higher levels of glycine betaine and were relatively more tolerant to drought stress than the controls at both the germination and early seedling stages. The grain yield of the transgenic plants was significantly higher than that of the control plants after drought treatment. Drought-tolerant inbred lines were mated and crossed to create hybrids, and the drought tolerance of these transgenic hybrids was found to be enhanced under field conditions compared with those of the non-transgenic (control) plants and two other commercial hybrids in China. High yield and drought tolerance were achieved concurrently. These transgenic inbred lines and hybrids were useful in marginal and submarginal lands in semiarid and arid regions. The betA transgene can improve the viability of crops grown in soils with sufficient or insufficient water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the impact of foliar application of salicylic acid and glycine betaine on stress tolerance and antioxidant defense mechanisms in two wheat varieties, PBW-343 and Halna, during the rabi season of 2021-22 in Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. Significant enhancements were observed in various biochemical parameters in response to the treatments. Glycine betaine and salicylic acid applications led to increases in chlorophyll content, total soluble sugars, proline content, peroxidase activity and catalase activity in both wheat varieties. Notably, glycine betaine treatments at 100mM concentration exhibited the most pronounced effects on chlorophyll content and proline accumulation, while salicylic acid treatments, especially at higher concentrations, significantly enhanced total soluble sugars content, peroxidase activity, and catalase activity. These findings suggest that foliar application of glycine betaine and salicylic acid effectively improves stress tolerance and antioxidant defense mechanisms in wheat plants. The results highlight the importance of treatment selection in mitigating stress-related damage and enhancing wheat crop productivity, particularly under challenging environmental conditions. This study contributes valuable insights into the physiological responses of wheat to exogenous applications of stress-alleviating compounds, offering potential strategies for crop improvement and sustainable agricultural practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field experiment was conducted at College of Research, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, University in Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India during the year 2021-2022 to study the effect of glycine betaine and salicylic acid foliar spray on performance of wheat under late sown condition. The findings indicated that glycine betaine @ 100mM followed by salicylic acid @ 250ppm foliar application treatments significantly enhanced the grain yield, straw yield and biological yield of wheat variety PBW-343 (15.00g/plant, 18.92g/plant, 33.92g/plant, respectively). Yield attributing characters viz., number of filled grains/spike (44.13), spike length (12.81cm), total number of grains/spike (47.66) and test weight (43.34g) were also found in the treatments having glycine betaine @ 100mM and salicylic acid @ 250ppm foliar application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field experiment was conducted at College of Research, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, University in Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India during the year 2021-2022 to study the effect of glycine betaine and salicylic acid foliar spray on performance of wheat under late sown condition. The findings indicated that glycine betaine @100mM followed by salicylic acid @250ppm foliar application treatments significantly enhanced the growth parameters viz., plant height (59.14 cm, 86.51 cm and 104.74 cm, respectively); leaf area index (3.20, 3.92 and 4.12, respectively) at 60DAS, 90DAS and at harvest. The number of tillers/plant (7.85, 5.85), RWC (81.03%, 76.78%) at 60DAS and 90DAS) were also recorded higher in glycine betaine @100mM followed by salicylic acid @ 250ppm foliar application treatments. Phenological characters such as days to 50% flowering and days to physiological maturity were also recorded higher with foliar application of glycine betaine 100mM (T3) followed by salicylic acid treatment 250ppm (T6). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A highly selective biosensor for glycine betaine (GB) based on the curcumin derivative (1BHD) is described, which displays a significant visual change and a lower detection limit (76 nM). The GB sensor displays a 1:1 binding ratio and a binding constant of 9.042 × 107 M−1. The binding mechanism of 1BHD for glycine betaine was confirmed by 1H NMR titration, mass spectrometry, and DFT calculation. The fluorescence intensity of 1BHD was selectively quenched by GB, and an obvious color change from yellow to orange was observed by the naked eye. The above results have been utilized to detect GB sensitively in blood and urine samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To increase cold tolerance in floral stems of Lilium sp. 'Indian Summerset' stored for two and four weeks using pre- and postharvest treatments. Design/Methodology/Approach: In the first phase, ascorbic acid (AA; 4 mM), glycine betaine (GB; 100 mM), and distilled water (T) were applied at preharvest and pre-conditioning was carried out at postharvest 0 °C for 24 h, then the steems were stored (6 °C; 85% RH). In the second phase, pulse solutions of AA, GB, or T were applied for 24 h after harvest and stored (7 °C; 92% RH) for two weeks. The variables evaluated were: fresh weight, solution absorption, foliage yellowing, floral opening, flower color, and vase life (VL). Results: Cold storage causes leaves yellowing, deformation, flower color fading, and reduces VL. Findings/Conclusions: Preharvest treatments did not have a significant effect on cold tolerance in lilies. In the second phase, the AA pulse solution delayed floral opening and maintained the flowers color, while GB only reduced the leaves yellowing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sweet cherries are among consumers' preferred fresh fruits, known for their attractive organoleptic properties and high nutritional value. Agronomical practices, which are now shifting to more environmentally sustainable options, can influence several key quality traits of sweet cherries. In this context, reducing conventional agrochemicals and increasing the application of preharvest biostimulants has emerged as an innovative strategy. This approach can not only enhance cherry production and quality but also ensure the economic and environmental sustainability of the cherry supply chain. Hence, this work is aimed at studying the effect of the application of two concentrations of glycine betaine (GB) and Ecklonia maxima-based (EM) biostimulants, and their combination, in two cultivars of sweet cherry: the early-maturing 'Early Bigi' and the late-maturing 'Lapins', both grafted onto SL-64 rootstock. Evaluated parameters included fruit weight and dimensions, color, firmness, total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), phenolic and anthocyanin contents, and sensory profile. Key findings highlight that, with a few exceptions, biostimulant treatments had a positive impact on the studied parameters, although the responses varied between cultivars. For instance, fruit size increased by 13.41% in 'Early Bigi' and 47.20% in 'Lapins'. Additionally, reduced color values, coupled with higher TSS/TA ratios, indicate advanced fruit maturation, which could allow for an earlier harvest. The total phenolic content rose by 56.88% in 'Early Bigi' and 30.24% in 'Lapins', while anthocyanin levels surged by 88.28% and 36.10%, respectively. Fruit firmness also improved following biostimulant application. Sensory analysis further revealed enhancements in key descriptors such as "overall aspect", "firmness", and "cherry flavor", underscoring the beneficial effects of these treatments. These combined results indicate that the preharvest application of glycine betaine or Ecklonia maxima-based (EM) biostimulants significantly improves key quality traits of sweet cherries. This approach offers benefits not only from a commercial perspective but also for the sweet cherry supply chain sustainability by reducing the application of chemical-based products and replacing them with ecofriendly substances while enhancing the quality of the fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sweet cherry is a high-value crop, and strategies to enhance production and sustainability are at the forefront of research linked to this crop. The improvement of plant status is key to achieving optimum yield. Biostimulants, such as glycine betaine (GB) or seaweed-based biostimulants [e.g., Ecklonia maxima (EM)], can represent a sustainable approach to improving plant conditions, even under adverse environmental circumstances. Despite their potential, few studies have focused on the effects of GB or EM exogenous application on sweet cherry tree physiology. To address this lack of research, a study was conducted in a Portuguese sweet cherry commercial orchard, using Lapins and Early Bigi cultivars. Trees were treated with products based on GB and EM at two different concentrations [GB 0.25% (v/v) and GB 0.40% (v/v); EM 0.30% (v/v) and EM 0.15% (v/v)], a combination of the lowest concentrations of both biostimulants (Mix —GB 0.25% and EM 0.15%), and a control group (C) treated with water. Applications were performed over three consecutive years (2019, 2020, and 2021) at three different phenological stages, according to the BBCH scale: 77, 81, and 86 BBCH. Results showed, in general, that the application of biostimulants led to improvements in water status as well as significantly lower values of electrolyte leakage and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances compared to C samples. Additionally, biostimulants reduced pigment loss in the leaves and enhanced their biosynthesis. The Chlorophylla/Chlorophyllb ratio, ranging from 2 to 4, indicated a greater capacity for light absorption and lower stress levels in treated leaves. Soluble sugar and starch content decreased during fruit development in both cultivars and years; however, biostimulants increased these contents, with increments of approximately 15% to 30% in leaves treated with EM. Soluble protein content also showed the same pattern for treated leaves. Biostimulants, especially EM, demonstrated a significant positive effect (p ≤ 0.001) on total phenolic content, with increases of approximately 25% to 50% in treated leaves. In conclusion, the application of biostimulants, especially algae-based, significantly improved tree performance by enhancing physiological parameters and stress resilience and could represent a novel approach in fruit production systems.

Cold is one of the abiotic environmental factors that severely affect plant metabolism. It causes changes in the fluidity of biological membranes, induces oxidative and osmotic stress, photoinhibition, reduces photosynthetic rates and slows down numerous metabolic enzyme activities. Some effects of cold overlap with drought response processes. Drought itself has a dualistic effect on plants. Severe drought stress is detrimental, while a mild preceding drought may prepare the otherwise sensitive maize to cope with cold. This study focused on the effects of mild drought on photosynthesis, sugar and amino acid metabolism at low temperature. Maize (Zea mays L.) plants were drought-hardened (15±5% relative soil moisture) between stages V4 and V6 at 25°C for 10 days and then subjected to cold treatmet at 10°C for 2 weeks at two light levels (PPFD=450 and 150 µmol m-2 s-1). The control population was watered daily (35±5% soil moisture), and in completely dried pots, 5±3% soil moisture was measured. The present results confirmed that photosynthetic performance and glutamine biosynthesis were positively affected by drought under both light intensities. Plants exposed to combined cold and moderate drought stress had a higher dry weight than those exposed to cold stress alone. The metabolism of several sugars, organic acids and amino acids was maintained by mild drought acclimation. The cold protective DHN2-like dehydrin gene was induced by moderate drought treatment, which may have contributed to the drought-induced higher tolerance to low temperature. However, cold stress markers were lower in low light than in normal growth light under drought acclimation, suggesting that drought-induced stress defense may require a certain level of light.

Osmolytes proline (Pro) and glycine betaine (GB) have been reported to impart tolerance against salinity stress in many plants. However, there is no report available on the combined application of Pro and GB to mitigate salinity-induced growth inhibition in maize. Consequently, the goal of the current study is to assess Pro's and GB's potential as priming and exogenous agents in maize under salt stress. Therefore, the present study was conducted using a petri dish and hydroponic pot experiment to evaluate the morpho-physiological and biochemical characteristics of maize plants subjected to salt stress, with the addition of Pro and GB. The seeds of maize were germinated under 20 mM of each Pro or GB, with or without 120 mM salinity stress. The findings demonstrated that salt stress lessened the final germination percentage (FGP) (52.9 %), photosynthetic pigments (40.0 %), relative water content (RWC) (20.2 %), stomatal size (59.3 %), and leaf and root K+/Na+ ratios of maize seedlings compared to control. In addition, compared to the control, higher levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) (24.2 %) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (25.7 %) were observed, whereas lower levels of catalase (CAT) (43.8 %) and peroxidase (POX) (30.4 %) were noted. The priming with Pro, GB, Pro+GB significantly increased FGP, germination index (GI), shoot-root biomass, seed vigor index (SVI), and reduced mean germination time (MGT) under salt stress. Foliar application of Pro, GB, or Pro+GB resulted in a significant increment in chlorophyll contents, RWC, K+ absorption, and stomatal size under salt stress. Furthermore, supplementing with Pro, GB, or Pro+GB reduced the accumulation of H2O2 (24.0, 23.3, and 31.1 %, respectively) and MDA (22.8, 17.2, and 32.1 %, respectively) caused by salt and augmented the levels of CAT (33.3, 22.8, and 45.2 %, respectively) and POX (36.4, 23.5, and 47.2 %, respectively) in the leaves. Taken together, the current study's findings indicate that combining Pro and GB is one of the most effective techniques for improving the salinity-tolerant seed germination and seedling traits of maize plants. Consequently, this study recommends that Pro and GB can be used as seed priming and exogenous agents to help maize grow faster in salt-stress situations.

Abstract Halophiles are one of the classes of extremophilic microorganisms that can flourish in environments with very high salt concentrations. In this study, fifteen bacterial strains isolated from various crop rhizospheric soils of agricultural fields along the Southwest coastline of Saurashtra, Gujarat, and identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing as Halomonas pacifica, H. stenophila, H. salifodinae, H. binhaiensis, Oceanobacillus oncorhynchi, and Bacillus paralicheniformis were investigated for their potentiality to produce extremozymes and compatible solute. The isolates showed the production of halophilic protease, cellulase, and chitinase enzymes ranging from 6.90 to 35.38, 0.004–0.042, and 0.097–0.550 U ml−1, respectively. The production of ectoine-compatible solute ranged from 0.01 to 3.17 mg l−1. Furthermore, the investigation of the ectoine-compatible solute production at the molecular level by PCR showed the presence of the ectoine synthase gene responsible for its biosynthesis in the isolates. Besides, it also showed the presence of glycine betaine biosynthetic gene betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase in the isolates. The compatible solute production by these isolates may be linked to their ability to produce extremozymes under saline conditions, which could protect them from salt-induced denaturation, potentially enhancing their stability and activity. This correlation warrants further investigation.

A field experiment was carried out during the spring season of 2022 at Research Station No.2, College of Agriculture, University of Anbar. The experiment followed a randomized complete block design (RCBD) in a split-plot arrangement with three replications to study the effect of four concentrations of Glycine Betaine acid (0, 50, 100, 150 mg L-1), denoted as GB2, GB3, and GB4 respectively, on some biochemical traits of mung bean under water stress conditions. The water stress levels were S1 (irrigated with 100% of available water, serving as the control treatment), and S2, S3, and S4, representing depletion rates of 25%, 50%, and 75% of available water, respectively. The results showed that the GB4 concentration was superior in total chlorophyll content in leaves (1.677 mg g-1), relative water content (55.7%), proline content (124.74 µg g-1), catalase enzyme activity (22.84 units ml-1), and peroxidase enzyme activity (28.42 units ml-1). The water stress treatment S1 excelled in giving the highest values for total chlorophyll content in leaves (1.842 mg g-1), relative water content (60.9%), proline content (144.38 µg g-1), catalase enzyme activity (29.69 units ml-1), and peroxidase enzyme activity (34.07 units ml-1). The interaction between water stress level S1 and GB4 concentration resulted in the highest rates for total chlorophyll content in leaves (1.930 mg g-1), relative water content (67.2%), proline content (186.30 µg g-1), catalase enzyme activity (35.13 units ml-1), and peroxidase enzyme activity (35.19 units ml-1).

Glycine betaine (GB) serves as a compatible solute crucial for stress tolerance across numerous plant species. Populus trichocarpa grows along coastal regions and often suffers from salt stress. In this study, we explored the effects of foliar spraying of GB on the growth, physicochemical indexes, gene expression, and stress tolerance of poplar under salt stress. To achieve this, poplar plants (Populus deltoides × Populus euramericana "Nanlin 895") were grown under four NaCl concentrations: 0, 50, 100, and 150 mM. Additionally, they were treated with 0, 5, 15, and 25 mM GB. The degree of effect on potted poplars was observed after 8 weeks. A GB treatment of about 15 mM significantly reduced the impact of salt stress and photosynthetic pigments and caused an improvement in the activity of the antioxidant enzymes peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Moreover, GB-treated poplars had significantly more malonaldehyde (MDA) than the control lines. This study indicated that GB treatment reduces salt stress symptoms in poplars. This research helps to develop safe levels of endogenous GB, which will make poplars more resistant to environmental stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study was performed on a 6-year-old "Florida" peach cultivar (Prunus persica) during 2022 and 2023 respectively. Twenty-four peach trees uniformly were selected and sprayed two times at the beginning of pit starts hardening and at the end of phase two of fruit growth with the following treatments: the control, glycine betaine at 400 mg l-1, potassium silicate at 200 mg l-1, potassium silicate at 400 mg l-1, potassium silicate at 200 mg l-1 + glycine betaine at 400 mg l-1, potassium silicate at 400 mg l-1 + glycine betaine at 400 mg l-1, proline at 400 mg l-1 and potassium silicate at 200 mg l-1 + proline at 400 mg l-1. The results indicated that both treatments of potassium silicate at 200 mg l-1 + proline at 400 mg l-1 and potassium silicate at 400 mg l-1 + glycine betaine at 400 mg l-1 resulted in a significant increase in concentrations of anthocyanin and total carotenoid contents in the skin. Moreover, total soluble solid, vitamin C and total soluble solid / acidity were shown with high concentrations as compared with the control. Overall, the use of potassium silicate at 200 mg l-1 + proline at 400 mg l-1 or potassium silicate at 400 mg l-1 + glycine betaine at 400 mg l-1 two times is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Halophiles are one of the classes of extremophilic microorganisms that can flourish in environments with very high salt concentrations. In this study, fifteen bacterial strains isolated from various crop rhizospheric soils of agricultural fields along the Southwest coastline of Saurashtra, Gujarat, and identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing as Halomonas pacifica, H. stenophila, H. salifodinae, H. binhaiensis, Oceanobacillus oncorhynchi, and Bacillus paralicheniformis were investigated for their potentiality to produce extremozymes and compatible solute. The isolates showed the production of halophilic protease, cellulase, and chitinase enzymes ranging from 6.90 to 35.38, 0.004–0.042, and 0.097–0.550 U ml−1, respectively. The production of ectoine-compatible solute ranged from 0.01 to 3.17 mg l−1. Furthermore, the investigation of the ectoine-compatible solute production at the molecular level by PCR showed the presence of the ectoine synthase gene responsible for its biosynthesis in the isolates. Besides, it also showed the presence of glycine betaine biosynthetic gene betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase in the isolates. The compatible solute production by these isolates may be linked to their ability to produce extremozymes under saline conditions, which could protect them from salt-induced denaturation, potentially enhancing their stability and activity. This correlation warrants further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low nutrient availability is a key characteristic of the phyllosphere (the aerial surface of plants). Phyllospheric bacteria utilize a wide array of carbon sources generated by plant hosts. Glycine betaine (GB) is a plant-derived compound that can be metabolized by certain members of the phyllosphere microbiota. Metabolism of glycine betaine generates formaldehyde, an intermediate of methylotrophic metabolism, leading us to investigate how the ubiquitous plant colonizing bacterium Methylorubrum extorquens PA1 might metabolize GB encountered in its native environment. M. extorquens PA1 cannot utilize GB as a sole carbon source. Through suppressor mutation analysis, we show that M. extorquens PA1 encodes a conserved GB utilization pathway that can be activated by single point mutations conferring GB utilization as a carbon source. We identified the gene cluster encoding the GB catabolic enzymes and found that gene expression was induced in the presence of GB. We show that utilization of GB is conserved among representative Methylobacterium species and generates the one-carbon metabolism intermediate formaldehyde, which M. extorquens utilizes as a source of energy. Our results support a model where suppressor mutations in Mext_3745 or ftsH (Mext_4840) prevent the degradation of the dimethylglycine dehydrogenase subunit DgcB by the membrane integral protease FtsH, conferring the ability to utilize GB by either (i) restoring stable membrane topology of DgcB or (ii) decreasing FtsH protease activity, respectively. Both mutations alleviate the bottleneck at the second step of GB degradation catalyzed by DgcAB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integration of metabolites into the overall metabolic network of a cell requires careful coordination dependent upon the ultimate usage of the metabolite. Different stoichiometric needs, and thus pathway fluxes, must exist for compounds destined for diverse uses, such as carbon sources, nitrogen sources, or stress-protective agents. Herein, we expand upon our previous work that highlighted the nature of glycine betaine (GB) metabolism in Methylobacteria to examine the utilization of GB-derivative compounds dimethylglycine (DMG) and sarcosine into Methylorubrum extorquens in different metabolic capacities, including as sole nitrogen and/or carbon sources. We isolated gain-of-function mutations that allowed M. extorquens PA1 to utilize dimethylglycine as a carbon source and dimethylglycine and sarcosine as nitrogen source. Characterization of mutants demonstrated selection for variants of the AraC-like regulator Mext_3735 that confer constitutive expression of the GB metabolic gene cluster, allowing direct utilization of the downstream GB derivatives. Finally, among the distinct isolates examined, we found that catabolism of the osmoprotectant used for selection (GB or dimethylglycine) enhanced osmotic stress resistance provided in the presence of that particular osmolyte. Thus, access to the carbon and nitrogen and osmoprotective effects of GB and DMG are made readily accessible through adaptive mutations. In M. extorquens PA1, the limitations to exploiting this group of compounds appear to exist predominantly at the levels of gene regulation and functional activity, rather than being constrained by transport or toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To evaluate the effects of Glycine Betaine, Zinc, and Boron elements on the yield and nutritional status of rainfed Cicer arietinum, a factorial experiment, was conducted during the 2019 and 2020 cropping years in Mahabad city. The experiment followed a randomized complete block design with three replications. The experimental factors included soil application of zinc sulfate at two levels (40 kg/ha and no zinc application), foliar application of boron at three levels (no use, before, and after flowering with 3 kg per 1000 L of water), and foliar application of Glycine Betaine at three levels (no use, flowering, and after flowering with 1.88 g/L). The results indicated that the year significantly affected grain yield, biological yield, and uptake of boron and zinc. The treatments involving boron and Glycine Betaine showed an increasing effect on plant height, total chlorophyll, soluble sugar, Glycine Betaine, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant, 100-seed weight, grain yield, biological yield, nitrogen percentage, boron concentration, and grain protein percentage. The highest grain yield (1549.15 kg. ha−1) in the treatment without zinc application and with simultaneous application of boron and Glycine Betaine after flowering resulted in a 34.58% increase compared to the control. The foliar application of Glycine Betaine and boron in the pre-and post-flowering stages and boron in the post-flowering stage resulted in the highest grain nitrogen uptake at 60.2%. Also, the result showed that no Glycine Betaine and boron application before flowering exhibited the highest soluble sugar content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Green gram (Vigna radiata) also known as moong bean is an annually cultivated in East Asia, Southeast Asia and Indian subcontinent. V. radiata is very important source for the protein as in our regular diet and it proved essential amino acid such as phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, lysine, arginine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan. Methods: Here, we studied the influence of seed endophytes on germination and development under salinity stress condition. Seeds were treated with sodium hypochlorite for 30 min under shaking condition at 100 rpm for surface sterilization and treated with 70% ethanol for 2 min and followed five times rinse with autoclaved water. Surface sterilised seeds were homogenised in autoclaved water with the help of mortal-pestle. Homogenised seed solution made serial dilution and spreaded over nutrient agar for endophytic bacterial growth. Seeds were treated with bacteriocide and fungicide to make endophytes free, followed by sown for germination at 0 mM, 50 mM, 100 mM and 150 mM NaCl concentration. Result: Endophyte free seedlings were more susceptible against salt stress over normal seedlings. Therefore endophyte free seedling shoot and root biomass was 23.5% and 65.7% lower than control seedling biomass at 0mM salt respectively, while root length was 70% lower than control seedling root at 0mM salt concentration. Proline content in shoot and root observed an increase with increase of salt concentration. At 0 mM salt, proline content was 0.00782±0.00043 and 0.00648±0.00017 (µmol/mg) in root of normal and endophyte free seedling respectively, while in shoot, it was non-significant difference. Glycine betaine content found to be increasing upto 100 mM, followed by decreasing at 150 mM in both root and shoot tissue. Glycine betaine content in endophyte free and control seedling shoot was 74.2±2.5 and 96.0±2.73 (µg/200 mg) respectively at 100 mM salt concentration. This result suggests, not only heritable genomic DNA but also endophytes associated with seed are very much important for the seedling growth and development which is also finally helps to combat abiotic stress situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In nature, plants constantly fight against the negative effects of biotic and abiotic stress factors. Salinity encountered in agricultural areas in the world and in our country is one of the most important factors that negatively affects sustainable agriculture. This study was carried out to investigate the effects of Gibberellic Acid (GA3) and Glycine Betaine (GB) applied as pre-treatment to sunflower seeds under salt stress conditions on germination and seedling development. In the experiment, the seeds were pre-treated with four different concentrations of GA3 and GB (0, 15, 30, 45 mg/l) before planting, and then four different salt (Na+Cl-) concentrations (0, 6, 9, 12 dS/m) was put into salt stress application. The experiment was set up with 3 replications according to the Randomized Plot Factorial Trial Design. In the study, germination rate, germination power, seedling length, root length, seedling fresh weight, root fresh weight characteristics and enzyme activities such as CAT, SOD and POD were examined. In the experiment, parallel to the increase in salinity stress, decreases in germination rate and germination power and negative effects on other seedling characteristics were observed. According to the results obtained, positive results were observed for germination and seedling characteristics at 6 dS/m salt stress in 30 and 45 mg/l GB and GA3 applications. As a result, it was concluded that Glycine Betaine applications to sunflower seeds as an alternative to plant regulator groups under salt stress conditions will be beneficial in production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biochar (BC) and plant growth-promoting microbes (PGPR) could represent a suitable agronomical strategy to mitigate the impacts of drought in arid agro-environmental conditions. However, there is currently little understanding of the synergistic benefit of combining BC and PGPR to increase drought tolerance in oilseeds. In this study, the physiological response of two water-stressed canola (Brassica napus L.) plants subjected to the application of BC obtained from waste wood of Morus alba applied solely or in combination with PGPR strains (Pseudomonas sp.) was evaluated. The experiment consists of two genotypes and nine treatments [(C-Control, T1-15 days drought (15DD), T2-30 days drought (30DD), T3-15 days of drought + PG (15DD + PG), T4-30 days of drought + PG (30DD + PG), T5-15 days drought + biochar (15DD + BC), T6-30 days drought + biochar (30DD + BC), T7-15 days drought + biochar + PG (15DD + BC + PG), T8-30 days drought + biochar + PG (30DD + BC + PG)]. Drought stress decreased emergence energy (EE), leaf area index (LAI), leaf area ratio (LAR), root shoot ratio (RSR), moisture content of leaves (MCL), percent moisture content (%MC), moisture content of shoot (MCS) and moisture content of root (MCR), and relative water content (RWC) in both varieties of Brassica napus L., which in contrast, it is increased by the collective application of both biochar and PGPR. In both varieties, N, P, K, Mg, and Ca concentrations were highest in all the biochar and PGPRs separate and combined treatments, while lowest in 15 and 30 days drought treatments. Osmolyte contents like Glycine betaine (GB) and sugar remarkably increased in the stress condition and then reduced due to the synergistic application of biochar and PGPR. Drought stress has a repressive effect on the antioxidant enzymatic system like Peroxidase (POD), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione reductase (GR) as well as total flavonoids, phenolics, and protein content. The antioxidant enzymes and phenolic compounds were dramatically increased by the combined action of biochar and PGPRs. A significant increase in EE, LAR, RSR, and RWC under 15 and 30 days drought conditions, evidently highlighting the synergistic effect of BC and PGPR. The results conclude a substantial and positive effect of the combined use of BC and PGPR strains on canola's response to induced drought stress, by regulating the physiological, biochemical, and agronomic traits of the plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract Background Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., a valuable medicinal plant, shows contrasting salt tolerance between seedlings and perennial individuals, and salt tolerance at seedling stage is very weak. Understanding this difference is crucial for optimizing cultivation practices and maximizing the plant’s economic potential. Salt stress resistance at the seedling stage is the key to the cultivation of the plant using salinized land. This study investigated the physiological mechanism of the application of glycine betaine (0, 10, 20, 40, 80 mM) to seedling stages of G. uralensis under salt stress (160 mM NaCl). Results G. uralensis seedlings’ growth was severely inhibited under NaCl stress conditions, but the addition of GB effectively mitigated its effects, with 20 mM GB had showing most significant alleviating effect. The application of 20 mM GB under NaCl stress conditions significantly increased total root length (80.38%), total root surface area (93.28%), and total root volume (175.61%), and significantly increased the GB content in its roots, stems, and leaves by 36.88%, 107.05%, and 21.63%, respectively. The activity of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (BADH2) was increased by 74.10%, 249.38%, and 150.60%, respectively. The 20 mM GB-addition treatment significantly increased content of osmoregulatory substances (the contents of soluble protein, soluble sugar and proline increased by 7.05%, 70.52% and 661.06% in roots, and also increased by 30.74%, 47.11% and 26.88% in leaves, respectively.). Furthermore, it markedly enhanced the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the content of antioxidants (SOD, CAT, POD, APX and activities and ASA contents were elevated by 59.55%, 413.07%, 225.91%, 300.00% and 73.33% in the root, and increased by 877.51%, 359.89%, 199.15%, 144.35%, and 108.11% in leaves, respectively.), and obviously promoted salt secretion capacity of the leaves, which especially promoted the secretion of Na+ (1.37 times). Conclusions In summary, the exogenous addition of GB significantly enhances the salt tolerance of G. uralensis seedlings, promoting osmoregulatory substances, antioxidant enzyme activities, excess salt discharge especially the significant promotion of the secretion of Na+Future studies should aim to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that operate when GB regulates saline stress tolerance.

Climate change will pose a challenge for the winemaking sector worldwide, bringing progressively drier and warmer conditions and increasing the frequency and intensity of weather extremes. The short-term adaptation strategy of applying biostimulants through foliar application serves as a crucial measure in mitigating the detrimental effects of environmental stresses on grapevine yield and berry quality. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of foliar application of a seaweed-based biostimulant (A. nodosum—ANE) and glycine betaine (GB) on berry quality, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity and to elucidate their action on the secondary metabolism. A trial was installed in a commercial vineyard (cv. "Touriga Franca") in the Cima Corgo (Upper Corgo) sub-region of the Douro Demarcated Region, Portugal. A total of four foliar sprayings were performed during the growing season: at flowering, pea size, bunch closer, and veraison. There was a positive effect of GB in the berry quality traits. Both ANE and GB increased the synthesis of anthocyanins and other phenolics in berries and influenced the expression of genes related to the synthesis and transport of anthocyanins (CHS, F3H, UFGT, and GST). So, they have the potential to act as elicitors of the secondary metabolism, leading to improved grape quality, and also to set the foundation for sustainable agricultural practices in the long run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low temperature is a type of abiotic stress affecting the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) growth. Understanding the mechanisms and utilization of exogenous substances underlying plant tolerance to cold stress would lay the foundation for improving temperature resilience in this important crop. Our study is aiming to investigate the effect of exogenous glycine betaine (GB) on tomato seedlings to increase tolerance to low temperatures. By treating tomato seedlings with exogenous GB under low temperature stress, we found that 30 mmol/L exogenous GB can significantly improve the cold tolerance of tomato seedlings. Exogenous GB can influence the enzyme activity of antioxidant defense system and ROS levels in tomato leaves. The seedlings with GB treatment presented higher Fv/Fm value and photochemical activity under cold stress compared with the control. Moreover, analysis of high-throughput plant phenotyping of tomato seedlings also supported that exogenous GB can protect the photosynthetic system of tomato seedlings under cold stress. In addition, we proved that exogenous GB significantly increased the content of endogenous abscisic acid (ABA) and decreased endogenous gibberellin (GA) levels, which protected tomatoes from low temperatures. Meanwhile, transcriptional analysis showed that GB regulated the expression of genes involved in antioxidant capacity, calcium signaling, photosynthesis activity, energy metabolism-related and low temperature pathway-related genes in tomato plants. In conclusion, our findings indicated that exogenous GB, as a cryoprotectant, can enhance plant tolerance to low temperature by improving the antioxidant system, photosynthetic system, hormone signaling, and cold response pathway and so on. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a clinically common and has a high mortality rate pathogen, as well as a bacterium that causes infection through food. To combat with pathogens, it is commonly preferred to create osmotic stress in their environment but S. aureus is able to synthesize some osmoprotectant substances such as betaine. There is limited literature about the synthesis pathways and gene expressions of these substances. This study aims to search the metabolic pathways of osmoprotectan production of S. aureus by comparing the bacterial behaviour with the expression of genes responsible for betaine. Methods: In the current study, different concentrations of NaCl and KCl salts (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 M) were applied to Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 43300, changes in the number of viable cells of the bacteria were monitored and associated with osmoprotectant production. Bacterial numbers treated with salt were counted by culturel and spectrophotometric methods and viability graphs were created. Simultaneously, metabolic pathways under stress conditions were determined by monitoring the expression of genes responsible for betaine in RT-PCR. Results: When the growth curve of the bacterium is examined in NaCl or KCl salt stress, it was observed that the bacteria exited the logarithmic phase and was more affected by the stress conditions, especially at 12-24 time interval which is critical in the development of bacteria. The most notable results in the RT-PCR trials of the study were obtained when 1.5 M NaCl was present in the growth media at 36th hour of incubation. Under these conditions, a significant decrease of (-2.37-fold) in the betA gene was observed. Contrary to this result, 2.57-fold increase in the betA gene and 3.25-fold increase in the betB-gbsA gene was observed when 2 M KCl was present in the medium at 48th hour of incubation. Conclusion: During the 48-hour incubation period in which the bacterial growth was followed, it was observed that the bacteria exhibited a fluctuating growth curve against the salt stress and exhibited a different behavior than expected in the growth kinetics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]