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Biochar from biomass and waste is a valuable component of various urban green infrastructures, including green roofs, permeable pavements, green walls, and green parking lots. Incorporating biochar into substrate mixtures offers numerous benefits, including improved water retention, nutrient availability, plant growth, and carbon sequestration. Moreover, biochar plays a crucial role in stormwater management by effectively retaining and filtering stormwater, reducing runoff, mitigating urban flooding, and improving surface water quality. This study conducted a comprehensive bibliometric analysis and synthesis of the literature to provide a broad perspective of the current understanding of biochar use in green infrastructure projects, focusing on the impact of biochar on soil and environmental quality, water retention, pollutant removal and the overall performance and sustainability of green infrastructure systems. This review also provides a comprehensive synthesis of the potential of biochar in enhancing green infrastructure systems and guiding future research and implementation strategies. The insights provided in this review can guide corporate stakeholders in understanding the benefits, challenges, and applications of biochar in urban green infrastructure management, empowering them to make informed decisions and contribute to the development of sustainable and resilient urban environments aligned with the principles of the UN SDGs and ESG considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jeddah is the most important port city in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The climate of Jeddah is mostly dry; however, events of intensive rainfall followed by urban flooding have been reported in recent history. These floods interrupt the logistics and lifelines of the city. In this study runoff analysis and Flash Flood management by the green roof low impact development (LID) control system, was performed using United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s Stormwater Management Model (SWMM). Six middle districts of Jeddah city had been selected and modeled in five sub-catchment areas. The local soil and geographic conditions were incorporated into the model. The effect of the soil-based, rooftop, LID system has been emphasized in the analysis. In flood simulations, 30–70% of the impervious area of each sub-catchment has been treated with LID. It has been observed that the LID application can significantly reduce the overall flood flow. Thus, simple but well-planned LID control systems can be effectively utilized for the flood management of heavily urbanized regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Builder (1896-0642) is the property of PWB MEDIA Zdzieblowski sp.j. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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The rapid urbanization witnessed in recent years has led to the deterioration of urban ecosystems, resulting in various environmental and socioeconomic challenges. In response to these concerns, the implementation of Green and Blue Infrastructures (GBI) has gained prominence as a sustainable urban planning approach. GBI is a planned network system of natural and semi-natural spaces, along with other environmental elements, managed and designed to provide a wide range of ecosystem services and improve ecological conditions, thereby contributing to citizens' wellbeing and quality of life. This study presents a comprehensive assessment of the costs, benefits (ecosystem services), and impacts (ecosystem dis-services) associated with the incorporation of GBI in urban environments using the technique of emergy accounting. To achieve this, the research paper introduces a novel integrated valuation framework. This framework encompasses key components such as constructing/maintenance costs, ecosystem services, needed costs to human health and biodiversity damage, as well as ecosystem dis-services. Furthermore, the study conducts a comparative analysis of the costs, benefits, and impacts associated with different urban GBIs via ternary phase diagram, shedding light on their varying contributions to the urban ecosystem. The findings reveal that green roofs offer more ecosystem benefits as compared to other GBIs, but this study also highlights that green roof entail higher initial construction costs and produce a greater number of dis-services. Conversely, street trees have lower initial costs and impacts yet generate higher benefits. Furthermore, green walls, despite having a lower input emergy value and fewer benefits, result in higher impacts compared to other green-blue ecosystems. These findings provide valuable insights for urban planners, policymakers, and stakeholders, enabling them to make informed decisions in developing sustainable cities for the wellbeing of present and future generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainability and energy efficiency are now two pivotal goals that society aims towards. Green roofs and facades have gained significant attention in this direction for innovative, sustainable solutions for enhancing building energy performance. With a focus on sustainable urban development and energy-efficient building practices, this study delves into the intricate relationship between these green infrastructure elements and the overall energy dynamics of constructed environments. Furthermore, a range of case studies from diverse geographical locations are presented to provide valuable insights into their practical implications as emerging technologies that contribute to improved insulation, reduced heat transfer, regulating indoor temperatures, and mitigation of urban heat island effects, thus reducing the need for artificial heating and cooling and optimizing overall energy consumption. This comprehensive review serves as a dataset for understanding and highlighting all the research findings of the numerical and experimental investigations invested in the field of greenery systems to encourage their integration, which is crucial for combating climate change and pollution. Previous research is often focused on isolated, short-term, or single-climate analyses of consumption; therefore, by providing an inclusive description of their practical benefits in both temperate and extreme climates, the gap in previous articles is tackled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs are a fundamental technology in the transformation of urban centers into more sustainable environments, with a positive impact on buildings, cities, and their inhabitants. Yet, green roof technology may require the use of materials with a high environmental impact, namely, when associated with large transport distances. The present work arises from the need to find an environmental solution to use in an eco-school on one of the Azores islands. It tests green roofs on a wooden structure using local and sustainable materials. Prototypes were built to monitor their performance and to complement the theoretical information investigated regarding the construction systems of green roofs with alternative materials. The installation of the prototypes was accompanied by the school community, and the performance was monitored. The pumice stone proved to be an efficient solution for the drainage layer of the green roof. The use of local soil (volcanic origin) instead of a commercial substrate proved to work properly, both for drainage and for vegetation growth. Finally, the results also contribute to a better understanding of green roofs on wooden structures and encourage the use of local materials in future projects, with a view towards a circular economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smart urban planning needs to have a multicriteria-based approach to prevent the deteriorating local thermal climate. Maximizing the cooling potential using the available grey infrastructure would be the utmost priority of future smart cities. Remote sensing and GIS can be the appropriate tools to develop a climate-resilient urban planning framework. Studies are needed to include different features of vertical and horizontal landscaping to mitigate heat stress and enhance liveability at the city level. With this goal, the current work outlined a holistic approach to efficiently using green spaces with minimal reconstruction. The problem of regional climate threat was evaluated with urban heat island characterization. Moran's I clustering identified nearly 12% of the study area to be under considerable heat stress during summer days. Multiple techniques, such as mapping local climate zones, segment mean shift-based roof extraction, vegetation index computation, solar azimuth-based green wall site selection, etc., were applied to formulate solutions and provide an integrated method for city-level environment enhancement. A considerable area was identified as most suitable for green roof cover, and it was also computed that the transition towards green roof at only these locations may bring down the maximum heat island intensity by 0.74 °C. Additionally, solar zenith, illumination effect, and building height information were combined to create a distinct method where vertical plantation would flourish exceptionally. A rigorous assessment of more than 130 urban green spaces further quantified the relation between landscape geometry and cooling effect to provide optimum green space designs for future urban planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floods are increasingly becoming a significant concern due to climate change, global warming, and excessive urbanization. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected that global warming will continue to contribute to more frequent and severe floods and hydrological extremes. In response to these challenges, nature-based solutions (NBSs) have gained recognition as effective approaches to mitigate the adverse impacts of floods by focusing on ecosystem conservation, restoration, and sustainable utilization of natural resources. This study examines a flood that occurred in the Erkilet District of Kayseri, Türkiye on September 22, 2022, as a result of intense rainfall. It involves a thorough on-site investigation to assess the hydraulic, hydrologic, and geotechnical attributes of the study area. The findings from the field study indicate that the primary cause of the flood is attributed to excessive urbanization. To further analyze the impact of urbanization, a hydraulic model is developed considering both the physical and topographical conditions of the study area for both the year 2006 and 2022. The simulation results reveal that the extent of inundation area and water depth has increased significantly due to the excessive urbanization that occurred within a 16-year period. Additionally, the effectiveness of green roofs and permeable pavements as NBSs to mitigate urban flooding is explored. The implementation of green roofs and permeable pavements shows promising results, reducing the adverse effects of urban floods by 3% to 8%, depending on their specific locations and configurations. However, the results suggest that NBSs alone cannot fully prevent floods so they should complement gray infrastructure. The novelty of the study lies in its ability to demonstrate the impact of urbanization and the effectiveness of nature-based solutions in mitigating flood extent based. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Severe weather conditions and urban intensification are key factors affecting the response of combined sewer systems, especially during storm events. In this regard, the capacity assessment of combined sewer networks under the impact of rainfall storm events of different return periods was the focus of this work. The selected case study area was a mixed-use catchment in the city centre of Thessaloniki, Greece. The hydraulic performance of the examined sewer network was assessed using an InfoWorks ICM model. The results indicated that mitigation strategies, such as the application of nature-based solutions (NBSs) or low-impact developments (LIDs) are considered essential for controlling combined sewer overflows. A multicriteria analysis was conducted to select the most appropriate NBSs/LIDs to be located in the study area to enhance the system's capacity. The results of this multicriteria analysis were used to propose a combined sewer overflow mitigation scenario, based on the installation of green roofs, as the most highly ranked solution in the analysis performed. Incorporating the proposed NBS/LID in the hydrologic-hydraulic model significantly increased the performance of the studied combined sewer network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of green roofs, a low-impact development practice, can be an effective means of reducing direct runoff in urban centers. Green roof modeling can enable efficient design by preliminarily grasping the behavior of the green roof system according to specific configurations. In this study, we aimed to find appropriate evapotranspiration and parameter optimization schemes for HYDRUS-1D, a commonly used modeling tool for green roofs. Comparative studies of this sort in the context of green roof runoff modeling have not been conducted previously and are important in guiding users to overcome the difficulties of choosing the right numerical schemes for an accurate prediction of runoff from a green roof. As a study site, the Portland Building Ecoroof in Portland, Oregon, USA, was chosen, as green roof configurations and observed data for climate and runoff were available. From the simulation results of the runoff volume, the Blaney–Criddle method, which was considered an alternative, was found to be appropriate for calculating evapotranspiration from a green roof (R2 = 0.82) relative to the Hargreaves method built in HYDRUS-1D (R2 = 0.46). In addition, this study showed that the optimization method using the harmony search algorithm, which was proposed as an alternative optimizer, was better (R2 = 0.95) than that of the HYDRUS-1D's own optimization module (R2 = 0.82) in calibrating HYDRUS-1D for green roof runoff. The findings are thought to be useful in guiding modelers who are considering using HYDRUS-1D for green roof runoff simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adoption of green roofs is an effective practice for mitigating environmental issues in urban areas caused by extreme weather conditions. However, certain design aspects of green roofs, such as the characterization of the physical properties of their substrates, need a better understanding. This study proposes a simple method for estimating two hydraulic properties of green roof substrates based on the evolution of moisture during drying periods, or drydowns, where evaporative processes dominate: the weighted-mean diffusivity and the saturated hydraulic conductivity. Soil moisture was monitored using 12 in situ sensors from 2015 to 2020 in a study involving six different green roof plots composed of various mixtures of demolition-recycled aggregates and organic substrates. A universal parameterization for determining water diffusivity in soils was applied to estimate the weighted-mean hydraulic diffusivity. As a by-product, the saturated hydraulic conductivity was estimated from the evaluated diffusivity and the measured water retention data. The median values obtained for D ¯ and k s range from 14.5 to 29.9 cm2d−1 and from 22 to 361 cmd−1, respectively. These values fall within the ranges reported by other research groups using direct measurement methods and supports the validity of Brutsaert's model for green roof substrates. Furthermore, an increase in D ¯ and a decrease in k s were observed as the percentage of recycled aggregates in the substrates increased, which could be considered for design purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With rapid worldwide urbanization, the urban heat island (UHI) effect is becoming more and more serious. The UHI effect is more intense in industrial areas. Green roofs are an effective way to mitigate UHIs in high-density cities, which calls for thorough examination. This study explored the associations between the block characteristics and block thermal environment in high-density industrial areas based on the widely accepted Local Climate Zone (LCZ) scheme. The pedestrian air temperature comparisons before and after virtual green roof installations presented the cooling effects of green roofs. Thirty-six typical industrial blocks were involved in the study and the simulations were conducted utilizing ENVI-met. The results showed that (1) the air temperature in LCZ4 is significantly lower than those in LCZ2 and LCZ6, but no significant differences were identified between other pairs of LCZ types; (2) the cooling effect of green roofs significantly differs among LCZs, and is associated with sky view factor (SVF), average building area (ABA) and average building shape index (ABSI); (3) in high-density urban areas, additional functional parameters and building-volume indices should be included to better address the physical characteristics, thermal environment, and green roof cooling effect of industrial blocks. This study could improve the validity of LCZ classification for high-density industrial blocks and may provide direct implications for green roof planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green structures, such as green roofs or green façades, are great examples of climate change mitigation. Their impact is mainly focused on roofs in the area of overheating reduction. In this paper, initial measurement results of a green façade experimental test setup are provided. The green façade uses an innovative board from recycled materials with vegetation rooted directly on the board. The tested green façade is divided into three segments. These segments differ from each other in their watering regimes, which are crucial for cooling effectiveness. Watering operates with the assistance of gravity; water flows from the top gutter through the boards. In this paper, these three segments are compared to each other with respect to temperatures on the surface of a regular external thermal insulation composite system façade (ETICS) during two summer days. The green façade showed an impact on the temperature in the ventilated air gap, where the temperature is almost the same as the outdoor air temperature in the morning with direct solar radiation on the façade and lower than the outdoor air temperature in the afternoon. At the peaks, the surface temperatures within the air cavity surface are up to 8 °C lower than those on a new white ETICS coating. This demonstrates a cooling potential, although the surface temperatures are always higher than the outdoor air temperatures during daylight hours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The depletion of global resources has intensified efforts to address energy scarcity. One promising area is the use of solar photovoltaic (PV) roofs for energy savings. This study conducts a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of 333 articles published between 1993 and 2023 in the Web of Science (WOS) core database to provide a global overview of research on solar photovoltaic (PV) roofs, with a particular emphasis on their energy-saving benefits. The analysis identifies current trends and future development trajectories in this field. Over the past three decades, research on solar PV roofs has shown steady growth, progressing from initial exploration to stable development. Key research themes include integrating renewable energy with building efficiency, the synergistic benefits of green roofs and PV systems, the design and practical application of PV-integrated roofs, and optimization techniques for parametric models. Future research will likely prioritize the efficient integration of PV components with roof maintenance structures, shifting from solely assessing PV component performance to evaluating the holistic performance of roofs and their broader impact on the built environment. This shift underscores the importance of improving the overall sustainability of the building. By aligning research efforts with these emerging trends, stakeholders can contribute to developing more effective and sustainable energy solutions for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spontaneous vegetation within a managed green space is often regarded as unwelcoming and insignificant weeds. This perception is still deep-rooted among green-space managers and the general public worldwide; they are generally uncertain about the management needs after allowing these groups of flora to take root. The short-term growth dynamics of both spontaneous and planted vegetation should be analyzed, and a widely acceptable, feasible management plan to balance aesthetic and ecological functions should be formulated with the backing of data and analysis for such fast-growing flora in tropical and subtropical regions. A manicured, extensive green roof with only seven (two native, five exotic) plant species was transformed into a renaturalized biotope by replacing 15 native ferns and forb species over 15 months. After planting, a baseline plant survey was conducted, with 54 plant species representing spontaneous growth and 14 planted species alive (7 planted native species survived, plus 7 species planted prior to renaturalization revived). Three quarterly plant surveys recorded the cover-abundance of each species, and the growth dynamics of the planted and spontaneous plant species were evaluated over the first year of study. During each quarterly survey, the number of planted and spontaneous plant species remained stable (ranging from 14 to 16 species and 51 to 54 species, respectively), with a constant turnover of 11 to 12 die-out species and 11 to 12 newly colonized or revived species. Plant coverage of different plant forms fluctuated slightly (within 7%) in the quarterly surveys according to seasonal changes, except for ferns, which outperformed (12% increase in coverage in a year) all the other plant forms. The height of the planted vegetation fluctuated in a year, being shorter during the summer, while the height of spontaneous vegetation remained stable throughout the year, exhibiting resilience to scouring heat. The seasonal growth tendencies of both planted and spontaneous plants were illustrated in relation to their species ranks, and further hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted for the clustering of spontaneous species. Their differential growth patterns provided comprehensive information or supported decisions regarding plant selection and maintenance, which is a scientific novelty within this unexplored topic. Management recommendations based on the findings were suggested to fulfill both aesthetic and ecological needs. Species with stable and less stable growth patterns could be useful to meet maintenance efficiency and biodiversity enhancement needs, respectively. These findings provide insights to form guiding principles for choosing plant species for renaturalization projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs and walls play an important role in promoting biodiversity, reducing the urban heat island effect and providing ecosystem services in urban areas. However, the conditions on green walls/roofs (low nutrient and organic matter content, drought, high temperatures) are often unfavorable for plant growth. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can improve the growth and development of plants under stress conditions as they can increase nutrient and water uptake. In a 6-month pot experiment, we investigated the effect of AMF inoculation on the growth and NPK uptake of Festuca ovina L. and Trifolium medium L., which are used for green roofs and walls. Two variants of mycorrhizal inoculation were used in the experiment: a commercial mycorrhizal inoculant AM Symbivit (Symbiom Ltd., Lanskroun, Czech Republic) and a mycorrhizal inoculant collected from calcareous grassland in the Silesia region (Poland). Funneliformis mosseae was the most abundant species in the roots of F. ovina and T. medium with IM inoculum. In the CM variant, a dominance of F. mosseae was observed in the roots of F. ovina. In contrast, Archaeosporaceae sp. node 317 dominated in the roots of T. medium. Both inoculations had a positive effect on the increase in dry weight of the shoots of T. medium, but only the commercial inoculum had a positive effect on the growth of F. ovina. Both inoculations improved the P uptake by the roots and the P and K uptake into the shoots of T. medium. In addition, both inoculations improved the K uptake by the roots of F. ovina and the N, P and K uptake into the shoots. In conclusion, both AMF communities included in the inoculations had a positive effect on plant growth and nutrient uptake, but the effect depends on the plant and the mycorrhizal fungus species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change can significantly affect building energy use and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in urban areas, as fossil fuels remain a significant energy source. Green roofs can offer multiple benefits to the urban environment, but their effects on GHG mitigation have not been fully investigated, especially under climate change. This study assessed green roofs' contribution to GHG mitigation by saving building energy and absorbing CO2 under the present (2017–2019) and future (2049–2051) climate scenarios (SSP2-45 and SSP5-85) in Shanghai, China, at the city and township scale. A Geographic Information System (GIS)-based spatial statistical method was developed based on climate change modeling and building energy simulation. The results suggested that installing green roofs can effectively save building energy regardless of building type, yet the amount of savings can vary depending on the weather conditions within the city. The contribution analysis indicated that most saved building energy was attributed to the Heating, Ventilation, and Cooling (HVAC) system, with more energy saved under warmer climate scenarios in the future, particularly during the summer months. More energy was saved from shopping malls on an annual and monthly scale, regardless of the climate scenarios and weather zones. Finally, a case study indicated installing green roofs on all five types of buildings (office, hotel, hospital, shopping mall, apartment) of less than 50 m in height can reduce 8.28% of the CO2 emitted during the building operation stage in the entire city under the present climate scenario. The annual CO2 reduction varied with the location of townships, ranging from 2.18% to 13.78%, depending on the composition of building types and local weather conditions in Shanghai. This study offered policymakers a reference on the environmental benefits and investment values of installing green roofs in large cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global increase in temperature and the resulting climate change present a significant challenge for animal husbandry. Cattle are particularly affected by heat stress during the summer months. The objective of the study was to quantify the duration of heat stress hours during the summer months on ten farms with new or renovated cattle barns. Furthermore, the heat radiation of different ridge designs was evaluated in comparison to the respective roof construction. All farms experienced heat stress during the summer months, with those two farms utilising digital barn climate regulation exhibiting notable benefits. This suggests that digital barn climate regulation can play a pivotal role in mitigating heat stress in animals. Additionally, the findings validated the efficacy of green roofs in actively cooling through evaporative cooling. The heat input was considerably higher with uninsulated trapezoidal sheet metal roofs and light ridges than with sandwich roofs and membrane ridges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of urbanisation has a significant impact on climate change, with projections indicating that over 70% of the global population will live in cities by 2050. The challenges associated with climate change impacts on urban areas include urban heat islands, unsustainable water management, floods and air pollution. This study explores the potential of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) and renewable energy in Torino, Italy, with a particular focus on the exploitation of rooftops for solar panels and green roofs. The data from 159 buildings in San Salvario was collected using aerial photogrammetry. The solar potential was analysed with ArcGIS, taking into account both geographic and building-specific factors. Buildings that were unsuitable for solar panels were identified for green roofs. This research supports the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), 13 (Climate Action), and 15 (Life on Land). The annual solar potential was estimated at 100,300 kWh, with 2,450 m2 of suitable roof area for green roofs. The study demonstrates the feasibility of using rooftops to increase urban sustainability, thereby enhancing the quality of life for residents. The integration of NBS and solar energy can facilitate the creation of more sustainable and resilient urban environments. The study recommends the implementation of spatial-enabled urban planning as a means of overcoming barriers and promoting the development of green, energy-efficient communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The changing climate and rapid urbanization have resulted in an increase in urban floods. It is crucial to develop and improve flood management measures in urban areas to minimize losses. The sponge city strategy, which is based on the concept of Low Impact Development (LID), has proven effective in mitigating urban surface water floods and improving water management. However, there is still a need to determine the scope of flood improvement based on flood risk assessment and consider the cost-effectiveness of improvement measures. This study addresses this gap by developing a rapid cost–benefit assessment method for LID measures using cellular automata. The study area was Waterloo, and potential LID measures such as green roofs, permeable pavements, and bio-retention facilities were chosen. LID mitigation scenarios were generated based on the risk distribution of buildings. The CADDIES model, which is based on cellular automata, was used to simulate urban surface floods. The study found that the submerged area of flood water depth greater than 0.3 m increased logarithmically with the rainfall return period, while areas with depths greater than 0.6 m and 0.9 m increased linearly. Implementation of all three LID scenarios had the best effect on flood control, with scenario S3 showing the highest economic benefit and scenario S12 demonstrating the best investment return. When only the green roofs measure was implemented, the recommended renovation area accounted for 30%-50% of the total building area. If the green roofs measure was combined with the other two measures, the renovation area should be as small as possible. The study has shown that this method efficiently selects an investment strategy with favorable cost–benefit outcomes, thereby assisting decision-making in the planning of sponge city construction. This practical and effective approach offers scientific support for the sustainable management of urban floods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of sponge cities advocates for sustainable urban rainwater management, effectively alleviating urban flood disasters, reducing non-point-source pollution, and promoting the recycling of rainwater resources. Low-Impact Development (LID) serves as a key strategy in this context, providing essential support for urban rainwater control and pollution reduction. To investigate the runoff control effects of LID measures and to reveal the relationship between facility runoff control performance and installation scale, this study focuses on a sponge community in Beijing. A SWMM model was constructed to analyze the rainwater flood control and pollutant load reduction effects of different LID facilities, including bio-retention cells, green roofs, and permeable pavements. Using evaluation indicators such as surface runoff, node overflow, and pollutant control rates, this study examined how facility performance varies with installation scale under different rainfall conditions. The combination scheme of LID equipment optimal configuration is designed by using multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and cost–benefit theory. The results indicate significant differences in performance among the various LID facilities across different rainfall scenarios. Specifically, the optimal installation proportion for runoff and overflow control of permeable pavements were found to be between 30% and 70%. Green roofs demonstrate superior performance in handling extreme rainfall events, while bio-retention cells exhibit significant effectiveness in controlling Total Suspended Solids (TSSs). Through comprehensive performance evaluation, this study identified the optimal combination scale under a 3-year rainfall recurrence interval as 30% permeable pavements, 20% green roof, and 60% bio-retention cells. This combination effectively leverages the strengths of each facility, ensuring system stability and efficiency while also demonstrating optimal management efficiency in cost–benefit analyses. The findings of this research provide valuable insights for future urban water management and infrastructure development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy-efficient materials are essential in buildings to reduce energy consumption, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance indoor comfort. These materials help address the increasing energy demand and environmental impact of traditional construction methods. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review that explores advanced materials and technologies for improving building energy efficiency, sustainability, and occupant comfort. The study applies a comparative analysis of peer-reviewed research to examine key technologies analyzed include building-integrated photovoltaics, advanced insulating materials, reflective and thermal coatings, glazing systems, phase-change materials, and green roofs and walls. The study highlights the significant energy savings, thermal performance, and environmental benefits of these materials. By integrating these technologies, buildings can achieve enhanced energy efficiency, reduced carbon footprints, and improved indoor comfort. The findings underscore the potential of advanced building materials in fostering sustainable construction practices. The methodology of this review involves collecting, analyzing, summarizing, comparing and synthesizing existing research to draw conclusions on the performance and efficiency of these technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs (GRs) have been widely adopted as an effective Green Infrastructure (GI) practice in cities worldwide, offering ecosystem services such as stormwater management and reduction of the urban heat island effect. However, their widespread implementation is still limited by a lack of local research and uncertain research findings. As a result, the potential benefits of GRs often cannot justify their high investment costs. Previous studies have sought to enhance the effectiveness of GRs by evaluating new GR systems, such as integrating GRs with green walls, blue roofs, photovoltaic (PV) panels, radiant cooling systems, as well as the use of innovative materials in GR substrates. Biochar, a carbon-rich substrate additive, has been recently investigated. The addition of biochar improves water/nutrient retention of GRs, thereby increasing substrate fertility and promoting plant performance. Although studies have examined the effects of biochar on GR plant growth, long-term observational studies focusing on the impacts of various biochar-related parameters remain necessary. Therefore, this research aims to assess the performance of GR plants with different biochar parameters, namely, amendment rates, application methods, and particle sizes. A one-year-long observational data of plant height, coverage area, and dry weight from six GR test beds was collected and analyzed. Results demonstrate the positive impacts of biochar on plant growth in different biochar-GR setups and types of plant species (wallaby grass, common everlasting, and billy buttons). The GR with medium biochar particles at the amendment rate of 15% v/v had the best plant performance. This contributes to increasing the feasibility of GRs by maximizing GR benefits to buildings where they are installed while reducing GR costs of irrigation and maintenance. The conclusions were further supported by observed data indicating reduced substrate temperature, which in turn reduces building energy consumption. Since vegetation is crucial in determining the effectiveness of a GR system, this study will offer valuable insights to GR designers and urban planners for developing optimal biochar-amended GR systems. Such systems provide numerous benefits over traditional GRs, including enhanced plant growth, reduced building energy costs, a shorter payback period, and reduced structural requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The roof is the part of a building that is exposed to solar radiation for the longest period, making green roofs particularly effective in reducing air conditioning energy consumption during the summer. This study aims to assess the advantages of modular green roofs in terms of energy savings and cost reduction during the summer in Xuzhou. By conducting field measurements and surveys under both air-conditioned and non-air-conditioned conditions and utilizing building energy simulation tools, the performance of green roofs with different parameters was compared. Using EnergyPlus, factors such as soil thickness, thermal conductivity, and leaf area index were simulated. The results indicated that green roofs have superior thermal performance in summer, with the daily cooling load per unit area for top-floor rooms being 1.05 kWh/m2, 0.21 kWh/m2 lower than that for bare roofs, achieving an energy saving rate of 16.7%. It is recommended that soil thickness not exceed 0.3 m and insulation thickness not exceed 0.05 m or be set to 0 m. Take building no. 2 of the Xuzhou material market as an example: with the optimized green roof, the energy saving rate increased to 27.0%, which is 12.4% higher than that of the original green roof. The suggested cost for modular green roofs is 204 RMB/m2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of China Rural Water & Hydropower is the property of China Rural Water & Hydropower Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Abstract Lightweight aggregates are a material used in many industries. A huge amount of this material is used in construction and architecture. For the most part, lightweight construction aggregates are obtained from natural resources such as clay raw materials that have the ability to swell at high temperatures. Resources of these clays are limited and not available everywhere. Therefore, opportunities are being sought to produce lightweight artificial aggregates that have interesting performance characteristics due to their properties. For example, special preparation techniques can reduce or increase the water absorption of such an aggregate depending on the needs and application. The production of artificial lightweight aggregate using various types of waste materials is environmentally friendly as it reduces the depletion of natural resources. Therefore, this article proposes a method of obtaining artificial lightweight aggregate consolidated using two methods: drum and dynamic granulation. Hardening was achieved using combined methods: sintering and hydration, trying to maintain the highest possible porosity. Waste materials were used, such as dust from construction rubble and residues from the processing of PET bottles, as well as clay from the Bełchatów mine as a raw material accompanying the lignite overburden. High open porosity of the aggregates was achieved, above 30%, low apparent density of 1.23 g/cm3, low leachability of approximately 250 µS. The produced lightweight aggregates could ultimately be used in green roofs.

A primary driving force of today's urban environment is the development or enhancement of building stock with a focus on minimizing its environmental footprint, eliminating its dependence on fossil fuels, enforcing its energy efficiency and self-sufficiency, and helping alleviate climate change. Therefore, in the present study, an up-to-date review regarding the passive building retrofitting techniques for sustainable and energy efficiency design is conducted. Numerous passive building solutions and design concepts are thoroughly examined in terms of innovation and energy-saving potential. The examined techniques include novel thermal insulation materials, innovative windows systems, high thermal mass technologies, optically advanced coatings appropriate for cooling abatement, and various energy-efficient bioclimatic designs, for instance, shading techniques, mechanical ventilation in combination with heat recovery, and green roofs and façades. The scope of the present review is to thoroughly and comparatively investigate passive building energy retrofit solutions as presented in the recent scientific literature mainly within the last five or up to ten years. The passive, energy-mitigating solutions are examined in terms of energy savings primarily in residential buildings, but also in tertiary buildings, as well as of specific investment costs. Lastly, an extensive discussion evaluating the comparative advantages and disadvantages of the examined passive envelope technologies is conducted, allowing a comprehensive and multilevel comparison. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most effective means of increasing urban green areas is the establishment of roof gardens. They have many positive properties and ecological functions, such as filling empty spaces with plants, protecting buildings, dust retention and air cleaning. In the case of extensive constructions, mostly Sedum species are used, planted as carpet-like "grass" sods or by installing modular units as plugs; however, with the use of other plant genera, the efficiency of ecological services could be increased by expanding the diversity. Festuca taxa have good drought resistance, and these plants tolerate temperature alterations well. Their application would increase the biodiversity, quality and decorative value of roof gardens. Experiments were carried out on nursery benches imitating a roof garden, with the use of modular elements intended for Sedum species, which facilitate the establishment of green roofs. In our trial, varieties of two European native species, Festuca glauca Vill. 'Uchte' and F. amethystina L. 'Walberla', were investigated. In order to find and determine the differences between the cultivars and the effects of the media (leaf mold and rhyolite tuff), we drew inferences after morphological (height, circumference, root weight, fresh and dry weight) and physiological tests (peroxidase and proline enzyme activity). We concluded that F. glauca 'Uchte' is recommended for roof garden conditions, planted in modular elements. Although the specimens were smaller in the medium containing fewer organic components than in the version with larger amounts, they were less exposed to the effects of drought stress. This can be a key factor for survival in extreme roof gardens or even urban conditions for all plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban green infrastructure (UGI) is pivotal in reconciling biodiversity conservation with sustainable urban development through adaptive management approaches. This paper introduces a comprehensive conceptual framework integrating ecological principles, urban planning strategies, and adaptive management methodologies to nurture resilient and biodiverse urban landscapes. The essence of UGI lies in its capacity to bolster ecological connectivity, restore ecosystem functions, and provide habitats for diverse flora and fauna within urban settings. Fundamental principles governing UGI design underscore its multifunctionality, connectivity, diversity, and accessibility, emphasizing the importance of adaptive management marked by its iterative and participatory nature. Despite challenges posed by urbanization, such as habitat loss, pollution, and climate change, UGI interventions offer promising avenues for enhancing habitat quality, connectivity, and ecosystem resilience. Global case studies demonstrate the effectiveness of UGI in biodiversity conservation, leveraging initiatives like green roofs, urban forests, and community gardens. UGI significantly contributes to sustainable urban development by offering diverse ecosystem services across various domains. Adaptive management is critical for effective UGI planning and implementation, ensuring flexibility amidst evolving environmental conditions. However, UGI encounters hurdles, including funding constraints, institutional fragmentation, and equity issues. Addressing these challenges necessitates innovative financing mechanisms, community involvement, and policy innovations. UGI presents a transformative pathway towards fostering resilient, biodiverse, and sustainable urban landscapes, imperative for cities to thrive in the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: Biochar, a carbon-rich material derived from organic matter through pyrolysis, enhances substrate quality by increasing water retention and nutrient availability, leading to healthier plant growth and increased biodiversity. It also plays a significant role in carbon sequestration, capturing and storing carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere, thus contributing to climate change mitigation efforts. Green roofs (GRs) are a well-established green infrastructure (GI) strategy that have been extensively studied for decades to address a growing array of social and environmental challenges. Research efforts have been continuously made to contribute to the awareness of benefits of GRs and towards their widespread application. The substrate, which is one of the crucial layers of a GR system, plays a major role in the serviceability of GRs. Thus, several studies have been undertaken to alter the substrate characteristics by applying innovative substrate additives. Biochar, a carbon-rich material with a highly porous structure and large specific surface area, has been found advantageous in several areas such as agriculture, water filtration, environmental remediation, construction, and so on. However, the application of biochar in GRs has been insufficiently studied, partially because biochar amendment in GRs is a relatively recent innovation. Furthermore, a comprehensive review of the performance of biochar-amended GR substrates is lacking. This review paper aims to summarize the past performance of GRs enhanced with biochar by considering the various benefits that biochar offers. The results indicate that most of the reviewed studies observed increased retention of runoff and nutrients when utilizing biochar. Additionally, the capabilities of biochar in improving thermal insulation, plant performance, and microbial diversity, as well as its effectiveness in sequestrating carbon and controlling soil erosion, were mostly agreed upon. Notwithstanding, a definitive conclusion cannot yet be confidently made due to the limited research information from biochar–GR systems and the uneven research focus observed in the studies reviewed. The influence of biochar-related variables (including amendment rates, application methods, processed forms, and particle size) on the effectiveness of biochar was also discussed. Opportunities for future research were suggested to fill the research gaps and address challenges restricting the application of biochar in GRs. Detailed information from past research findings could serve as a foundation for further investigations into the large-scale implementation of biochar in GRs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs (GRs) are a widely recognized green infrastructure (GI) strategy that helps reduce runoff volume and runoff pollution caused by the significant increase in impervious urban areas. However, the leaching of several nutrients from GR substrates is a growing concern. Biochar, a carbon-rich material, possesses advantageous properties that can help address such environmental challenges associated with GRs. Therefore, this paper aimed to undertake a field study to investigate the impacts of various biochar application methods, particle sizes, and amendment rates on the quality of runoff from GRs. Observational data of runoff quality were collected over a two-month period from five newly established 1 m × 1 m biochar-amended GR test beds and a control test bed without biochar, with all test beds subjected to artificially simulated rainfall. The results indicated that the addition of biochar did not result in a significant improvement in runoff pH, whereas the electrical conductivity (EC) was higher in runoff from GRs with biochar-amended substrates. When comparing the total nitrogen (TN) concentration in runoff from the non-biochar GR (ranging from 3.7 to 31 mg/L), all biochar test beds exhibited higher TN release (4.8 to 58 mg/L), except for the bed where medium biochar particles were applied at the bottom of the substrate (ranging from 2.2 to 21 mg/L). Additionally, all biochar-amended GRs exhibited higher TP concentrations in runoff (0.81 to 2.41 mg/L) when compared to the control GR (0.35 to 0.67 mg/L). Among the different biochar setups, GR with fine biochar particles applied to the surface of the substrate had the poorest performance in improving runoff water quality. Despite these mixed results, biochar holds significant potential to improve runoff quality by significantly increasing water retention, thereby reducing pollutant loads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roof systems are regarded as a viable solution for mitigating urban environmental challenges and offering a multitude of environmental benefits. Currently, green roofs are increasingly being utilized for the management of rainwater runoff and wastewater. The integration of decentralized rainwater and sewage on-site treatment technology with urban green buildings is being gradually promoted. Green roofs can also be considered as a form of decentralized rainwater and sewage on-site technology, which holds great potential for widespread adoption in the future. Several studies have suggested that green roofs may serve as a potential source of pollutants; however, there are also studies that clearly demonstrate the efficient removal of nutrients and organic pollutants by green roofs. This article critically examines the existing literature on water treatment aspects associated with green roofs and elucidates their classification and operational mechanisms. Through an analysis of previous research cases, it becomes evident that both substrate and vegetation play a significant role in influencing the treatment performance of green roofs. By designing and configuring appropriate substrate and vegetation, green roofs can play a pivotal role in the purification of water quality. Finally, a brief outlook is presented for the future research directions of green roofs, with the anticipation that green roofs will feature more innovative and environmentally friendly designs, as well as expanded prospects for application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental and design factors determine the stormwater management capacity of green roofs; however, the design and environmental factors that impact their hydrological performance in subtropical humid regions are poorly understood. In particular, meteorological factors have received little attention. Meteorological factors vary greatly at different stages of a rainfall event (e.g., during the rainfall and outflow). Therefore, the impact of meteorological factors at different stages on hydrological performance should be considered separately to obtain a more accurate picture of their effects on hydrological performance. In this study, experimental green roofs were established based on four substrate types and two depths. For the first time, this study systematically explored the effects of design factors for the substrate (type and depth) and multi-stage environmental factors on the hydrological performance of green roofs. Environmental factors, including meteorological factors, from three critical stages (before and during a rainfall event and during the outflow), and rainfall characteristics (e.g., rainfall depth and rainfall duration) were incorporated to determine the variation in hydrological performance. The effects of multi-stage environmental factors on retention and peak reduction were analyzed, with a ranking of each factor's relative importance. Environmental factors played a leading role in determining hydrological performance. However, the impact of multi-stage environmental factors was not as important as that of rainfall depth and antecedent volumetric water content. Differences in hydrological performance were compared across combinations of design factors. No significant differences were observed across substrate types and depths. However, potential interactive effects might exist, though these were not significant compared to environmental factors (e.g., rainfall depth and rainfall duration). These results confirmed that the meteorological factors in the different event-related stages significantly impacted the hydrological performance. Quantifying the effects of design and environmental factors is critical for hydrological performance evaluation. The results provided a broader perspective on understanding influence mechanisms of hydrological performance and highlighted the impact of microclimates on hydrological performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building rating systems allow for the evaluation of environmental buildings' impact throughout their lifecycle, thereby enabling improved design. The integration of vegetation into building envelopes, through green roofs and facades, provides multiple benefits that enhance the sustainability of a built environment. In arid climates, Building-Integrated Greenery Systems (BIGSs) contribute to energy savings and the improvement of the urban environment through evaporative cooling. However, the maintenance of these green systems requires efficient water use. This study thoroughly reviews six selected building sustainability certifications to determine the extent to which BIGSs are considered in the certification process. The findings indicate that BIGSs are not yet well integrated directly into these certifications. While the certifications recognize the biophilic effects on users and contributions to sustainable construction, they often overlook scientifically proven benefits such as acoustic insulation and urban noise reduction. This study highlights the importance of updating certification frameworks to fully incorporate the diverse advantages of BIGSs, especially in enhancing indoor environments and achieving energy savings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dianthus cruentus Griseb. (Caryophyllaceae) is an herbaceous perennial native to Greece with a strong ornamental potential when used as a pollinator-friendly component of xeric gardens and green roofs, where it is valued for its tolerance of poor, dry soils, and its showy colorful inflorescences. Aiming to develop an efficient mass propagation protocol appropriate for the introduction of the species as a novel floricultural crop, the in vitro seed and clonal propagation of a Greek native xeric ecotype were investigated in this paper for the first time. A total of 90–100% of the seeds, after being stored in the dark at room temperature for 12 months, germinated when incubated at 10 to 25 °C after their surface sterilization and transfer in vitro. Sixty-day-old seedlings grown in vitro were then used as a source of nodal explants for the initial establishment of micropropagation cultures, more efficiently on MS medium with 0.1 mg L−1 6-benzylaminopurine (BA). In the multiplication stage, either normal or hyperhydric micro-shoots were used as explant sources, assessing the possibility of incorporating usually discarded material in the propagation procedure. Different solid media were tested, with the highest multiplication indices (5.1) recorded in an MS medium containing 0.1 mg L−1 BA and 0.05 mg L−1 NAA, regardless of explants' hyperhydricity, while an MS medium containing 0.1 mg L−1 BA and 12 g L−1 agar proved optimal for the effective reversal of hyperhydric explants (MI: 5.2). Despite higher hyperhydricity and reaction rates being observed when hyperhydric explants were used, modifications in the multiplication medium proved to be highly effective in controlling hyperhydricity, with the highest number of normal shoots (2.4–2.6) produced in BA-containing media. Micro-shoots rooted readily in ½ MS medium (60–100%), with rooting rates and quality positively affected by the presence of 0.5 mg L−1 IBA in the rooting medium and the absence of cytokinins in the multiplication one. Rooted micro-shoots were successfully acclimatized ex vitro at high rates (65–100%), their origin influencing their acclimatization and morphology. Thus, the concurrent use of normal and hyperhydric shoots in the proposed micropropagation protocol is proven to be both feasible and desirable, as it is able to significantly increase efficiency and facilitate the sustainable exploitation and dissemination of D. cruentus as a promising multivalent horticultural crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green roofs are nature-based solutions with multiple benefits for the urban environment, but they have specific polymeric components in their structure that cause a carbon footprint. This scoping review highlights the technological advance in reusing or recycling alternative materials in green roof structures worldwide, making them a part of the circular economy (CE), and the search strategies to promote them to find whether there is a relation between them. The data were collected using the Web of Science from 2012 to 2022; we also used the Bibliometrix package to analyse research development by country and the development of the topic by author's keywords. We selected 68 open-access articles from twenty-four countries and reviewed the grey literature from the top five productive countries on this topic. Our findings show that CE strategies are performed nationally, while the green roof promotion ones are concentrated at the city level. The theme co-occurrence analysis showed that the substrate is the primary layer used with alternative materials, and the three materials most applied for it are rubber, biochar, and hydrogel. It was found that the primary purpose of optimising green roofs with alternative materials is to increase the ecosystem services they provide and indirectly function within the circular economy; still, there is a gap in estimating the environmental impact of doing this as a potential CE activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lightweight aggregates are a material used in many industries. A huge amount of this material is used in construction and architecture. For the most part, lightweight construction aggregates are obtained from natural resources such as clay raw materials that have the ability to swell at high temperatures. Resources of these clays are limited and not available everywhere. Therefore, opportunities are being sought to produce lightweight artificial aggregates that have interesting performance characteristics due to their properties. For example, special preparation techniques can reduce or increase the water absorption of such an aggregate depending on the needs and application. The production of artificial lightweight aggregate using various types of waste materials is environmentally friendly as it reduces the depletion of natural resources. Therefore, this article proposes a method of obtaining artificial lightweight aggregate consolidated using two methods: drum and dynamic granulation. Hardening was achieved using combined methods: sintering and hydration, trying to maintain the highest possible porosity. Waste materials were used, such as dust from construction rubble and residues from the processing of PET bottles, as well as clay from the Bełchatów mine as a raw material accompanying the lignite overburden. High open porosity of the aggregates was achieved, above 30%, low apparent density of 1.23 g/cm3, low leachability of approximately 250 µS. The produced lightweight aggregates could ultimately be used in green roofs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comprehensive studies comparing impacts of building and street levels interventions on air temperature at metropolitan scales are still lacking despite increased urban heat‐related mortality and morbidity. We therefore model the impact of 9 interventions on air temperatures at 2 m during 2 hot days from the summer 2018 in the Greater London Authority area using the WRF BEP‐BEM climate model. We find that on average cool roofs most effectively reduce temperatures (∼−1.2°C), outperforming green roofs (∼0°C), solar panels (∼−0.5°C) and street level vegetation (∼−0.3°C). Application of air conditioning across London (United Kingdom) increases air temperatures by ∼+0.15°C. A practicable deployment of solar panels could cover its related energetic consumption. Current practicable deployments of green roofs and solar panels are ineffective at large scale reduction of temperatures. We provide a detailed decomposition of the surface energy balance to explain changes in air temperature and guide future decision‐making. Plain Language Summary: Multiple common city scale passive and active interventions exist to reduce urban population's exposure to extreme heat during hot spells. Nonetheless, a proper comparison of the effect that each of these interventions may have on the temperatures experienced within large cities is missing. Additionally, the radiative and thermal mechanisms that lead to outdoor temperature changes are often not detailed and could lead to detrimental effects for local populations, such as indirect increase of water vapor or reflection of solar radiation. Our study, focusing over London, compares several common interventions through a modeling experiment and finds that cool roofs largely outperform other interventions during the two hottest days of the summer 2018. We also find that green roofs are ineffective on average and that solar panels and tree vegetation would only marginally change temperature exposures. Large scale deployment of air conditioning would lead to increased temperature in the core of London. Solar panels could potentially provide sufficient energy for running air conditioning all over London, creating comfortable indoor environments, and green roofs could reduce temperatures during the day. We argue that such inter‐comparisons should guide future decision making. Key Points: City scale deployment of cool roofs leads to the greatest reduction in 2 m air temperatureGreen roofs do not decrease daily average temperature but have a daytime cooling effectSolar photovoltaic panels can reduce temperatures in London by capturing sensible heat flux and generate electrical power [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities frequently experience urban heat islands (UHIs), defined as regions where the urban environment is warmer than the rural surroundings. These characteristics are a direct result of urbanization, which eliminates natural vegetation and water sources and replaces them with impermeable surfaces with low albedo. Due to the urban heat island effect (UHI), cities are especially vulnerable to excessive heat events. The relationship between UHI and urban thermodynamics is explained by recent studies in the physical sciences, and these studies lay the groundwork for understanding how changes in the physical environment affect microclimates. The purpose of the study is to analyses the development of urban climate change as well as the technology used to mitigate it. Significant effort has been made in this particular time frame to comprehend and monitor urban climate change as well as to design and test alternative mitigation methods in high density residential areas of Delhi. The research The case of Delhi, India, using the microclimate modeling system ENVI-met, which models the temperature effects of various construction situations, has been analyzed in this paper. As a result, after applying all possible intervention, we conclude that in all other strategy temperature is increasing as comparison to base case so applying high emissivity paint on facade and green roof is the best strategy to mitigate high temperature in urban area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article evaluates select Mangave cultivars, which are a new addition to the horticultural scene. Mangaves are low-maintenance, versatile plants that can withstand various temperatures and are suitable for landscapes and containers. The article provides information on the breeding of Mangaves and the trial details of the evaluated cultivars. It also includes evaluations of the cultivars based on their appearance, growth habits, and flowering characteristics, categorizing them into excellent, fair, and poor ratings. The document emphasizes the importance of considering a mangave's flowering age and response to environmental conditions when selecting a cultivar. [Extracted from the article]