Search

An assessment of the soil and bedrock thermal structure of the Sierra de Guadarrama, in central Spain, is provided using subsurface and ground surface temperature data coming from four deep (20 m) monitoring profiles belonging to the Guadarrama Monitoring Network (GuMNet) and two shallow profiles (1 m) from the Spanish Meteorology Service (Agencia Estatal de Meteorología, AEMET) covering the time spans of 2015–2021 and 1989–2018, respectively. An evaluation of air and ground surface temperature coupling showed that soil insulation due to snow cover is the main source of seasonal decoupling, being especially relevant in winter at high-altitude sites. Temperature propagation in the subsurface was characterized by assuming a heat conductive regime by considering apparent thermal diffusivity values derived from the amplitude attenuation and phase shift of the annual cycle with depth. This methodology was further extended to consider the attenuation of all harmonics in the spectral domain, which allowed for analysis of thermal diffusivity from high-frequency changes in the soil near the surface at short timescales. For the deep profiles, the apparent thermal diffusivity ranges from 1 to 1.3 x 10-6 m2 s−1, which is consistent with values for gneiss and granite, the major bedrock components in the Sierra de Guadarrama. However, thermal diffusivity is lower and more heterogeneous in the soil layers close to the surface (0.4–0.8 x 10-6 m2 s−1). An increase in diffusivity with depth was observed that was generally larger in the soil–bedrock transition at 4–8 m depth. The outcomes are relevant for the understanding of soil thermodynamics in relation to other soil properties. Results with the spectral method suggest that changes in near-surface thermal diffusivity are related to changes in soil moisture content, which makes it a potential tool to gain information about soil drought and water resource availability from soil temperature data.

The anthropogenically intensified greenhouse effect has caused a radiative imbalance at the top of the atmosphere during the industrial period. This, in turn, has led to an energy surplus in various components of the Earth system, with the ocean storing the largest part. The land contribution ranks second with the latest observational estimates based on borehole temperature profiles, which quantify the terrestrial energy surplus to be 6 % in the last 5 decades, whereas studies based on state-of-the-art climate models scale it down to 2 %. This underestimation stems from land surface models (LSMs) having a subsurface that is too shallow, which severely constrains the land heat uptake simulated by Earth system models (ESMs). A forced simulation of the last 2000 years with the Max Planck Institute ESM (MPI-ESM) using a deep LSM captures 4 times more heat than the standard shallow MPI-ESM simulations in the historical period, well above the estimates provided by other ESMs. However, deepening the LSM does not remarkably affect the simulated surface temperature. It is shown that the heat stored during the historical period by an ESM using a deep LSM component can be accurately estimated by considering the surface temperatures simulated by the ESM using a shallow LSM and propagating them with a standalone forward model. This result is used to derive estimates of land heat uptake using all available observational datasets, reanalysis products, and state-of-the-art ESM experiments. This approach yields values of 10.5–16.0 ZJ for 1971–2018, which are 12 %–42 % smaller than the latest borehole-based estimates (18.2 ZJ).

En el presente trabajo se estudian posibles mejoras urbanísticas en Cesena, concretamente en el barrio de Vigne. Las fuertes lluvias de mayo de 2023 que devastaron numerosas áreas de la Región de Emilia Romagna y la aprobación una nueva ley regional (LR a 24/2017) para la regeneración y revalorización del suelo, ha llevado a una replanificación de las ciudades de esta región. El Ayuntamiento de Cesena amparándose en esta ley y superándola, ha creado un equipo multidisciplinar que propone intervenir en el planeamiento urbano, así como elaborar un manual para facilitar el trabajo de futuro arquitectos y urbanistas y aportarles herramientas que les ayuden a lograr estos objetivos. Como estrategia proyectual proponen las soluciones basadas en la naturaleza (SBN), puesto que estas además nos ayudaran a controlar el caudal pico, minimizar el efecto de isla de calor y mejorar la biodiversidad. Las propuestas serán evaluadas medioambientalmente tanto por su proceso de ejecución, como por su papel en la ciudad una vez implantadas. Las SBN son estrategias que se enfocan en suelo, vegetación y agua. Contribuyen al rendimiento de los servicios ecosistémicos en la regulación del clima local, por lo que estimamos que saldrán más favorecidas las valoraciones de las propuestas que estén en esta línea de trabajo. The current study examines potential urban improvements in Cesena, specifically in the Vigne neighborhood. The heavy rains in May 2023 that devastated numerous areas in the Emilia Romagna Region and the approval of a new regional law (LR a 24/2017) for soil regeneration and enhancement have led to a replanning of cities in this region. The Cesena City Council, in accordance with this law and going beyond it, has formed a multidisciplinary team proposing to intervene in urban planning. Additionally, they aim to develop a manual to facilitate the work of future architects and urban planners, providing them with tools to achieve these objectives. As a design strategy, they pro

Climate extremes are on the rise. Impacts of extreme climate and weather events on ecosystem services and ultimately human well-being can be partially attenuated by the organismic, structural, and functional diversity of the affected land surface. However, the ongoing transformation of terrestrial ecosystems through intensified exploitation and management may put this buffering capacity at risk. Here, we summarise the evidence that reductions in biodiversity can destabilise the functioning of ecosystems facing climate extremes. We then explore if impaired ecosystem functioning could, in turn, exacerbate climate extremes. We argue that only a comprehensive approach, incorporating both ecological and hydrometeorological perspectives, enables to understand and predict the entire feedback system between altered biodiversity and climate extremes. This ambition, however, requires a reformulation of current research priorities to emphasise the bidirectional effects that link ecology and atmospheric processes.

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance and heat has accumulated continuously over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere and the atmosphere. According to the 6th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this planetary warming over multiple decades is human-driven and results in unprecedented and committed changes to the Earth system, with adverse impacts for ecosystems and human systems. The Earth heat inventory provides a measure of the Earth energy imbalance, and allows for quantifying how much heat has accumulated in the Earth system, and where the heat is stored. Here we show that 380 ± 62 ZJ of heat has accumulated in the Earth system from 1971 to 2020, at a rate of 0.48 ± 0.1 W m−2, with 89 ± 17 % of this heat stored in the ocean, 6 ± 0.1 % on land, 4 ± 1 % in the cryosphere and 1 ± 0.2 % in the atmosphere. Over the most recent decade (2006–2020), the Earth heat inventory shows increased warming at rate of 0.48 ± 0.3 W m−2/decade, and the Earth climate system is out of energy balance by 0.76 ± 0.2 Wm−2. The Earth heat inventory is the most fundamental global climate indicator that the scientific community and the public can use as the measure of how well the world is doing in the task of bringing anthropogenic climate change under control. We call for an implementation of the Earth heat inventory into the Paris agreement’s global stocktake based on best available science. The Earth heat inventory in this study, updated from von Schuckmann et al, 2020, is underpinned by worldwide multidisciplinary collaboration and demonstrates the critical importance of concerted international efforts for climate change monitoring and community-based recommendations as coordinated by the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS). We also call for urgently needed actions for enabling continuity, archiving, rescuing and calibrating efforts to assure improved and long-term monitoring capacity of the relevant GCOS Essential

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance, and heat has accumulated continuously over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. According to the Sixth Assessment Report by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this planetary warming over multiple decades is human-driven and results in unprecedented and committed changes to the Earth system, with adverse impacts for ecosystems and human systems. The Earth heat inventory provides a measure of the Earth energy imbalance (EEI) and allows for quantifying how much heat has accumulated in the Earth system, as well as where the heat is stored. Here we show that the Earth system has continued to accumulate heat, with 381±61 ZJ accumulated from 1971 to 2020. This is equivalent to a heating rate (i.e., the EEI) of 0.48±0.1 W m−2. The majority, about 89 %, of this heat is stored in the ocean, followed by about 6 % on land, 1 % in the atmosphere, and about 4 % available for melting the cryosphere. Over the most recent period (2006–2020), the EEI amounts to 0.76±0.2 W m−2. The Earth energy imbalance is the most fundamental global climate indicator that the scientific community and the public can use as the measure of how well the world is doing in the task of bringing anthropogenic climate change under control. Moreover, this indicator is highly complementary to other established ones like global mean surface temperature as it represents a robust measure of the rate of climate change and its future commitment. We call for an implementation of the Earth energy imbalance into the Paris Agreement's Global Stocktake based on best available science. The Earth heat inventory in this study, updated from von Schuckmann et al. (2020), is underpinned by worldwide multidisciplinary collaboration and demonstrates the critical importance of concerted international efforts for climate change monitoring and community-based recommendations and we also

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance, and heat has accumulated continuously over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. According to the Sixth Assessment Report by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this planetary warming over multiple decades is human-driven and results in unprecedented and committed changes to the Earth system, with adverse impacts for ecosystems and human systems. The Earth heat inventory provides a measure of the Earth energy imbalance (EEI) and allows for quantifying how much heat has accumulated in the Earth system, as well as where the heat is stored. Here we show that the Earth system has continued to accumulate heat, with 381±61 ZJ accumulated from 1971 to 2020. This is equivalent to a heating rate (i.e., the EEI) of 0.48±0.1 W m−2. The majority, about 89 %, of this heat is stored in the ocean, followed by about 6 % on land, 1 % in the atmosphere, and about 4 % available for melting the cryosphere. Over the most recent period (2006–2020), the EEI amounts to 0.76±0.2 W m−2. The Earth energy imbalance is the most fundamental global climate indicator that the scientific community and the public can use as the measure of how well the world is doing in the task of bringing anthropogenic climate change under control. Moreover, this indicator is highly complementary to other established ones like global mean surface temperature as it represents a robust measure of the rate of climate change and its future commitment. We call for an implementation of the Earth energy imbalance into the Paris Agreement's Global Stocktake based on best available science. The Earth heat inventory in this study, updated from von Schuckmann et al. (2020), is underpinned by worldwide multidisciplinary collaboration and demonstrates the critical importance of concerted international efforts for climate change monitoring and community-based recommendations and we also

Information about the energy and water exchanges between the land surface and the lower atmosphere (i.e. land-atmosphere interactions) is necessary for example to improve our understanding of the effect of land-atmosphere interactions on the exacerbation of temperature and precipitation extremes. Observations of energy and water fluxes at the land surface usually rely on the eddy covariance method. There is a wide network of these measurements providing data over all continents but with large spatial gaps in Africa, Asia, South America and Oceania. Additionally, other problems are associated with these observational methods such as the energy and water balance non-closure. To improve the spatial coverage of land-atmosphere interactions data considering the energy and water balance closure, we explore the combination of remote sensing data and a physical-based model. The High resOlution Land Atmosphere Parameters from Space (HOLAPS) framework is a one dimensional modelling framework that solves the energy and water balance at the land surface using remote sensing data and reanalysis products as forcings. Preliminary results from the evaluation ofHOLAPS outputs over Europe at 5 km resolution show an improvement in the simulation of latent heat flux when using remote sensing data in comparison with results using only reanalysis data as forcing. Additionally, we see a moderate improvement in HOLAPS latent heat flux estimates against energy-balance corrected eddy covariance measurements in comparison with other products that solve the energy and water balance equations, such as the ERA5Land product. The new HOLAPS product is available at hourly resolution for the period 2001 to 2016 and these estimates can be useful for agriculture and forest management activities and to evaluate the representation of land-atmosphere feedbacks in weather and climate models.To test this hypothesis, we developed a reservoir module in the mesoscale hydrological model (mHM, https://mhm-ufz.o

Hot temperature extremes are changing in intensity and frequency. Quantifying these changes is key for developing adaptation and mitigation strategies. The conventional approach to study changes in hot extremes is based on air temperatures. However, many biogeochemical processes, i.e. decomposition of organic material and release of CO2, are triggered by soil temperature and it remains unclear whether it changes as does air temperature. Here, we demonstrate that soil hot extremes are intensifying and becoming even more frequent faster than air hot extremes over central eastern and western Europe. Based on existing model simulations, we also show that the increase in hot soil extremes could amplify or spread future heat waves by releasing sensible heat during hot days. We find an increase of 3 (7) % in the number of hot days with a contribution of heat from the soil under a warming level of 2.0 (3.0) °C than under a warming level of 1.5 °C. Furthermore, defining intensity and frequency extreme indices based on soil and air temperatures leads to a difference of more than 1 °C in intensity and 10% in frequency regionally during the last decades of the 21st century under the SPP5 8.5 emission scenario. In light of these results, maximum soil temperatures should be included in ecological risk studies as a complementary perspective to the conventional approach using extreme indices based on air temperatures.

An assessment of the soil and bedrock thermal structure of the Sierra de Guadarrama, in central Spain, is provided using subsurface and ground surface temperature data coming from four deep (20 m) monitoring profiles belonging to the Guadarrama Monitoring Network (GuMNet) and two shallow profiles (1 m) from the Spanish Meteorology Service (Agencia Estatal de Meteorología, AEMET) covering the time spans of 2015–2021 and 1989–2018, respectively. An evaluation of air and ground surface temperature coupling showed that soil insulation due to snow cover is the main source of seasonal decoupling, being especially relevant in winter at high-altitude sites. Temperature propagation in the subsurface was characterized by assuming a heat conductive regime by considering apparent thermal diffusivity values derived from the amplitude attenuation and phase shift of the annual cycle with depth. This methodology was further extended to consider the attenuation of all harmonics in the spectral domain, which allowed for analysis of thermal diffusivity from high-frequency changes in the soil near the surface at short timescales. For the deep profiles, the apparent thermal diffusivity ranges from 1 to 1.3 x 10-6 m2 s−1, which is consistent with values for gneiss and granite, the major bedrock components in the Sierra de Guadarrama. However, thermal diffusivity is lower and more heterogeneous in the soil layers close to the surface (0.4–0.8 x 10-6 m2 s−1). An increase in diffusivity with depth was observed that was generally larger in the soil–bedrock transition at 4–8 m depth. The outcomes are relevant for the understanding of soil thermodynamics in relation to other soil properties. Results with the spectral method suggest that changes in near-surface thermal diffusivity are related to changes in soil moisture content, which makes it a potential tool to gain information about soil drought and water resource availability from soil temperature data.

Heat storage within the Earth system is a fundamental metric for understanding climate change. The current energy imbalance at the top of the atmosphere causes changes in energy storage within the ocean, the atmosphere, the cryosphere, and the continental landmasses. After the ocean, heat storage in land is the second largest term of the Earth heat inventory, affecting physical processes relevant to society and ecosystems, such as the stability of the soil carbon pool. Here, we present an update of the continental heat storage, combining for the first time the heat in the land subsurface, inland water bodies, and permafrost thawing. The continental landmasses stored 23.8 ± 2.0 × 1021 J during the period 1960–2020, but the distribution of heat among the three components is not homogeneous. The sensible diffusion of heat through the ground accounts for ∼90 % of the continental heat storage, with inland water bodies and permafrost degradation (i.e. latent heat) accounting for ∼0.7 % and ∼9 % of the continental heat, respectively. Although the inland water bodies and permafrost soils store less heat than the solid ground, we argue that their associated climate phenomena justify their monitoring and inclusion in the Earth heat inventory.

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance, and heat has accumulated continuously over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. According to the Sixth Assessment Report by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this planetary warming over multiple decades is human-driven and results in unprecedented and committed changes to the Earth system, with adverse impacts for ecosystems and human systems. The Earth heat inventory provides a measure of the Earth energy imbalance (EEI) and allows for quantifying how much heat has accumulated in the Earth system, as well as where the heat is stored. Here we show that the Earth system has continued to accumulate heat, with 381±61 ZJ accumulated from 1971 to 2020. This is equivalent to a heating rate (i.e., the EEI) of 0.48±0.1 W m−2. The majority, about 89 %, of this heat is stored in the ocean, followed by about 6 % on land, 1 % in the atmosphere, and about 4 % available for melting the cryosphere. Over the most recent period (2006–2020), the EEI amounts to 0.76±0.2 W m−2. The Earth energy imbalance is the most fundamental global climate indicator that the scientific community and the public can use as the measure of how well the world is doing in the task of bringing anthropogenic climate change under control. Moreover, this indicator is highly complementary to other established ones like global mean surface temperature as it represents a robust measure of the rate of climate change and its future commitment. We call for an implementation of the Earth energy imbalance into the Paris Agreement's Global Stocktake based on best available science. The Earth heat inventory in this study, updated from von Schuckmann et al. (2020), is underpinned by worldwide multidisciplinary collaboration and demonstrates the critical importance of concerted international efforts for climate change monitoring and community-based recommendations and we also call for urgently

Information about the energy and water exchanges between the land surface and the lower atmosphere (i.e. land-atmosphere interactions) is necessary for example to improve our understanding of the effect of land-atmosphere interactions on the exacerbation of temperature and precipitation extremes. Observations of energy and water fluxes at the land surface usually rely on the eddy covariance method. There is a wide network of these measurements providing data over all continents but with large spatial gaps in Africa, Asia, South America and Oceania. Additionally, other problems are associated with these observational methods such as the energy and water balance non-closure. To improve the spatial coverage of land-atmosphere interactions data considering the energy and water balance closure, we explore the combination of remote sensing data and a physical-based model. The High resOlution Land Atmosphere Parameters from Space (HOLAPS) framework is a one dimensional modelling framework that solves the energy and water balance at the land surface using remote sensing data and reanalysis products as forcings. Preliminary results from the evaluation ofHOLAPS outputs over Europe at 5 km resolution show an improvement in the simulation of latent heat flux when using remote sensing data in comparison with results using only reanalysis data as forcing. Additionally, we see a moderate improvement in HOLAPS latent heat flux estimates against energy-balance corrected eddy covariance measurements in comparison with other products that solve the energy and water balance equations, such as the ERA5Land product. The new HOLAPS product is available at hourly resolution for the period 2001 to 2016 and these estimates can be useful for agriculture and forest management activities and to evaluate the representation of land-atmosphere feedbacks in weather and climate models.To test this hypothesis, we developed a reservoir module in the mesoscale hydrological model (mHM, https://mhm-ufz.o

© 2022 Royal Meteorological Society. We gratefully acknowledge the IlModels (CGL2014-59644-R) and GreatModelS (RTI2018-102305-B-C21) projects. We also thank the Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET) for the data. The ERA5-Land reanalysis used in this work is funded under the Copernicus Regulation and operated by ECMWF under the ECMWF Agreement. Francisco José Cuesta-Valero is funded by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. FUNDING INFORMATION Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad, Grant/ Award Number: BES-2015-075019; Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, RTI2018-102305-B-C21., Understanding the near-surface soil thermal regime and its connection to the atmospheric state is important for the assessment of several climate-related processes. However, the lack of in situ soil temperatures measurements limits the analysis of such processes. In this study, we have developed a quality-controlled soil temperature database for Spain that consists of 39 sites spanning from 1987 to 2018. We have used this database to assess the near-surface soil thermal regime. Likewise, we evaluate at seasonal to multidecadal timescales the land-air temperature coupling over Spain by analysing the structure of the surface air temperature (SAT) and the ground surface temperature (GST) covariance and also their long-term evolution. In addition, we have employed the ERA5-Land reanalysis to test the consistence between observations and reanalysis. The results show that the near-surface soil thermal structure is dominated by conduction despite some influence of hydrology-related processes. Regarding the land-air temperature coupling, we have found a strong connection between SAT and GST. However, in the summer months there is an offset in SAT-GST at some sites due to limited evaporation and enhanced sensible heat fluxes. Furthermore, multidecadal SAT-GST decoupling may exist over some sites as a response to decreasing precipitation. The ERA5-Land represents the observations' climatology well, but it underestimates the summer soil temperature observations and the long-term trends at some sites., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN)/FEDER, Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad (MINECO), Copernicus Regulation, operated by ECMWF under the ECMWF Agreement, Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Depto. de Física de la Tierra y Astrofísica, Fac. de Ciencias Físicas, TRUE, pub

This research has been supported by the Canadian Network for Research and Innovation in Machining Technology, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (grant no. DG 140576948), the Canada Excellence Research Chairs, Government of Canada (grant no. 230687), and the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI)., Understanding the differences between regional simulations of land-atmosphere interactions and near-surface conditions is crucial for a more reliable representation of past and future climate. Here, we explore the effect of changes in the model's horizontal resolution on the simulated energy balance at the surface and near-surface conditions using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. To this aim, an ensemble of 12 simulations using three different horizontal resolutions (25, 50 and 100 km) and four different land surface model (LSM) configurations over North America from 1980 to 2013 is developed. Our results show that finer resolutions lead to higher surface net shortwave radiation and maximum temperatures at mid and high latitudes. At low latitudes over coastal areas, an increase in resolution leads to lower values of sensible heat flux and higher values of latent heat flux, as well as lower values of surface temperatures and higher values of precipitation, and soil moisture in summer. The use of finer resolutions leads then to an increase in summer values of latent heat flux and convective and non-convective precipitation and soil moisture at low latitudes. The effect of the LSM choice is larger than the effect of horizontal resolution on the near-surface temperature conditions. By contrast, the effect of the LSM choice on the simulation of precipitation is weaker than the effect of horizontal resolution, showing larger differences among LSM simulations in summer and over regions with high latent heat flux. Comparison between observations and the simulation of daily maximum and minimum temperatures and accumulated precipitation indicates that the CLM4 LSM yields the lowest biases in maximum and minimum mean temperatures but the highest biases in extreme temperatures. Increasing horizontal resolution leads to larger biases in accumulated precipitation over all regions particularly in summer. The reasons behind this are related to the partition between, Depto. de Física de la Tierra y Astrofísica, Fac. de Ciencias Físicas, TRUE, pub

© Author(s)2022. This research has been supported by the Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung (Research Fellowship grant), the Canada Research Chairs Program, and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery Grants (NSERC DG 140576948 and 2020-04783)., Estimates of the past thermal state of the land surface are crucial to assess the magnitude of current anthropogenic climate change as well as to assess the ability of Earth System Models (ESMs) to forecast the evolution of the climate near the ground, which is not included in standard meteorological records. Subsurface temperature reacts to long-term changes in surface energy balance - from decadal to millennial time scales - thus constituting an important record of the dynamics of the climate system that contributes, with low-frequency information, to proxy-based paleoclimatic reconstructions. Broadly used techniques to retrieve past temperature and heat flux histories from subsurface temperature profiles based on a singular value decomposition (SVD) algorithm were able to provide robust global estimates for the last millennium, but the approaches used to derive the corresponding 95 % confidence interval were wrong from a statistical point of view in addition to being difficult to interpret. To alleviate the lack of a meaningful framework for estimating uncertainties in past temperature and heat flux histories at regional and global scales, we combine a new bootstrapping sampling strategy with the broadly used SVD algorithm and assess its performance against the original SVD technique and another technique based on generating perturbed parameter ensembles of inversions. The new bootstrap approach is able to reproduce the prescribed surface temperature series used to derive an artificial profile. Bootstrap results are also in agreement with the global mean surface temperature history and the global mean heat flux history retrieved in previous studies. Furthermore, the new bootstrap technique provides a meaningful uncertainty range for the inversion of large sets of subsurface temperature profiles. We suggest the use of this new approach particularly for aggregating results from a number of individual profiles, and to this end, we release the programs used to derive, Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung (Research Fellowship grant), Canada Research Chairs Program, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery, Depto. de Física de la Tierra y Astrofísica, Fac. de Ciencias Físicas, FALSE, pub

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance and heat has accumulated continuously over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere and the atmosphere. According to the 6th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this planetary warming over multiple decades is human-driven and results in unprecedented and committed changes to the Earth system, with adverse impacts for ecosystems and human systems. The Earth heat inventory provides a measure of the Earth energy imbalance, and allows for quantifying how much heat has accumulated in the Earth system, and where the heat is stored. Here we show that 380 ± 62 ZJ of heat has accumulated in the Earth system from 1971 to 2020, at a rate of 0.48 ± 0.1 W m−2, with 89 ± 17 % of this heat stored in the ocean, 6 ± 0.1 % on land, 4 ± 1 % in the cryosphere and 1 ± 0.2 % in the atmosphere. Over the most recent decade (2006–2020), the Earth heat inventory shows increased warming at rate of 0.48 ± 0.3 W m−2/decade, and the Earth climate system is out of energy balance by 0.76 ± 0.2 Wm−2. The Earth heat inventory is the most fundamental global climate indicator that the scientific community and the public can use as the measure of how well the world is doing in the task of bringing anthropogenic climate change under control. We call for an implementation of the Earth heat inventory into the Paris agreement’s global stocktake based on best available science. The Earth heat inventory in this study, updated from von Schuckmann et al, 2020, is underpinned by worldwide multidisciplinary collaboration and demonstrates the critical importance of concerted international efforts for climate change monitoring and community-based recommendations as coordinated by the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS). We also call for urgently needed actions for enabling continuity, archiving, rescuing and calibrating efforts to assure improved and long-term monitoring capacity of the relevant GCOS Essential

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance, and heat has accumulated continuously over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. According to the Sixth Assessment Report by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this planetary warming over multiple decades is human-driven and results in unprecedented and committed changes to the Earth system, with adverse impacts for ecosystems and human systems. The Earth heat inventory provides a measure of the Earth energy imbalance (EEI) and allows for quantifying how much heat has accumulated in the Earth system, as well as where the heat is stored. Here we show that the Earth system has continued to accumulate heat, with 381±61 ZJ accumulated from 1971 to 2020. This is equivalent to a heating rate (i.e., the EEI) of 0.48±0.1 W m−2. The majority, about 89 %, of this heat is stored in the ocean, followed by about 6 % on land, 1 % in the atmosphere, and about 4 % available for melting the cryosphere. Over the most recent period (2006–2020), the EEI amounts to 0.76±0.2 W m−2. The Earth energy imbalance is the most fundamental global climate indicator that the scientific community and the public can use as the measure of how well the world is doing in the task of bringing anthropogenic climate change under control. Moreover, this indicator is highly complementary to other established ones like global mean surface temperature as it represents a robust measure of the rate of climate change and its future commitment. We call for an implementation of the Earth energy imbalance into the Paris Agreement's Global Stocktake based on best available science. The Earth heat inventory in this study, updated from von Schuckmann et al. (2020), is underpinned by worldwide multidisciplinary collaboration and demonstrates the critical importance of concerted international efforts for climate change monitoring and community-based recommendations and we also

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance, and heat has accumulated continuously over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. According to the Sixth Assessment Report by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this planetary warming over multiple decades is human-driven and results in unprecedented and committed changes to the Earth system, with adverse impacts for ecosystems and human systems. The Earth heat inventory provides a measure of the Earth energy imbalance (EEI) and allows for quantifying how much heat has accumulated in the Earth system, as well as where the heat is stored. Here we show that the Earth system has continued to accumulate heat, with 381±61 ZJ accumulated from 1971 to 2020. This is equivalent to a heating rate (i.e., the EEI) of 0.48±0.1 W m−2. The majority, about 89 %, of this heat is stored in the ocean, followed by about 6 % on land, 1 % in the atmosphere, and about 4 % available for melting the cryosphere. Over the most recent period (2006–2020), the EEI amounts to 0.76±0.2 W m−2. The Earth energy imbalance is the most fundamental global climate indicator that the scientific community and the public can use as the measure of how well the world is doing in the task of bringing anthropogenic climate change under control. Moreover, this indicator is highly complementary to other established ones like global mean surface temperature as it represents a robust measure of the rate of climate change and its future commitment. We call for an implementation of the Earth energy imbalance into the Paris Agreement's Global Stocktake based on best available science. The Earth heat inventory in this study, updated from von Schuckmann et al. (2020), is underpinned by worldwide multidisciplinary collaboration and demonstrates the critical importance of concerted international efforts for climate change monitoring and community-based recommendations and we also

Understanding the near-surface soil thermal regime and its connection to the atmospheric state is important for the assessment of several climate-related processes. However, the lack of in situ soil temperatures measurements limits the analysis of such processes. In this study, we have developed a quality-controlled soil temperature database for Spain that consists of 39 sites spanning from 1987 to 2018. We have used this database to assess the near-surface soil thermal regime. Likewise, we evaluate at seasonal to multidecadal timescales the land–air temperature coupling over Spain by analysing the structure of the surface air temperature (SAT) and the ground surface temperature (GST) covariance and also their long-term evolution. In addition, we have employed the ERA5-Land reanalysis to test the consistence between observations and reanalysis. The results show that the near-surface soil thermal structure is dominated by conduction despite some influence of hydrology-related processes. Regarding the land–air temperature coupling, we have found a strong connection between SAT and GST. However, in the summer months there is an offset in SAT–GST at some sites due to limited evaporation and enhanced sensible heat fluxes. Furthermore, multidecadal SAT–GST decoupling may exist over some sites as a response to decreasing precipitation. The ERA5-Land represents the observations' climatology well, but it underestimates the summer soil temperature observations and the long-term trends at some sites.

Understanding the differences between regional simulations of land–atmosphere interactions and near-surface conditions is crucial for a more reliable representation of past and future climate. Here, we explore the effect of changes in the model's horizontal resolution on the simulated energy balance at the surface and near-surface conditions using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. To this aim, an ensemble of 12 simulations using three different horizontal resolutions (25, 50 and 100 km) and four different land surface model (LSM) configurations over North America from 1980 to 2013 is developed. Our results show that finer resolutions lead to higher surface net shortwave radiation and maximum temperatures at mid and high latitudes. At low latitudes over coastal areas, an increase in resolution leads to lower values of sensible heat flux and higher values of latent heat flux, as well as lower values of surface temperatures and higher values of precipitation, and soil moisture in summer. The use of finer resolutions leads then to an increase in summer values of latent heat flux and convective and non-convective precipitation and soil moisture at low latitudes. The effect of the LSM choice is larger than the effect of horizontal resolution on the near-surface temperature conditions. By contrast, the effect of the LSM choice on the simulation of precipitation is weaker than the effect of horizontal resolution, showing larger differences among LSM simulations in summer and over regions with high latent heat flux. Comparison between observations and the simulation of daily maximum and minimum temperatures and accumulated precipitation indicates that the CLM4 LSM yields the lowest biases in maximum and minimum mean temperatures but the highest biases in extreme temperatures. Increasing horizontal resolution leads to larger biases in accumulated precipitation over all regions particularly in summer. The reasons behind this are related to the partition between