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Gardeniae fructus (GF) is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine; however, its application is limited due to the hepatotoxicity of its main active component, Geniposide (GE). To investigate the material basis and mechanisms of GE-induced hepatotoxicity. We utilized an in vitro gastrointestinal model to examine metabolic processes, conducted in vivo experiments to study GE's hepatotoxic effects and performed cellular experiments to verify toxic effects. Results indicated that GE-induced hepatotoxicity is associated with its metabolite Genipin (GP), with GP's hemiacetal structure being a key factor. Upon exposure of the C-1 hydroxyl group of GP, a covalent binding reaction occurs with amino acids. This reaction readily proceeds as a phase II conjugation with the amino group of lysine (LYS), resulting in the formation of genipin-lysine (GP-LYS) adducts. These adducts affect cellular oxidative stress and trigger cascading reactions leading to hepatotoxicity. Our findings not only highlight chemical structure as a crucial factor influencing toxicity but also advance the understanding of GE's toxic action mechanism. This study provides a foundation for guiding rational clinical use of GE and offers valuable insights for the development of novel GE-based pharmaceuticals., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:Wensheng zhang reports financial support was provided by Beijing Normal University. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2025 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Gardenia jasminoides suspension culture has gained recognition as a functional approach for bioactive component development in the pharmaceutical industries but exhibits limited biomass accumulation and secondary metabolite production. This study presents the first record of maximum biomass production and demonstrates the cumulative levels of phenols, flavonoids and terpenoids observed through the growth trajectory of G. jasminoides suspension culture. Successful callus induction was obtained from leaf explants cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium augmented with a standardized conjunction of 1 mg/L of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 0.5 mg/L kinetin (KT). The experimental outcomes revealed that on the 35 th day, the in vitro suspension culture exhibited the highest biomass accumulation which was 5.43 times greater than the initial inoculation level. The study quantified total phenols, flavonoids, and terpenoids present in leaf explants, callus cultures, and suspension cultures and determined antioxidant efficacy. Findings suggest that an optimized growth regulator in G. jasminoides suspension culture significantly increases biomass accumulation. Quantification of secondary metabolites offers a promising path for future enhancement of their yield through elicitation and holds the potential to achieve extensive yield of cost-effective bioactive components.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by degeneration of the central nervous system. Recently, many studies have emphasized the beneficial role of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis extract (GJ-4) in neuroprotection, which is considered a potential drug for treating AD. However, the mechanism underlying its neuroprotective effects is obscure. This research intended to analyze the effectiveness of GJ-4 to induce neuronal protective role on a rat model of neurotoxicity and probe the potential mechanism. An AD model was established by intraperitoneal injection of aluminum chloride (AlCl 3 ). Then, AlCl 3 -induced rats were administered 25 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg of GJ-4 orally. This study indicated that GJ-4 (25 and 50 mg/kg) mitigated AD-like behaviors, as evidenced by enhanced ambulation frequency, rearing frequency, and time spent in the target quadrant and decreased grooming frequency, defecation frequency, and escape latency in AlCl 3 -challenged rats. Also, GJ-4 at 25 and 50 mg/kg exerted an anti-apoptosis effect in the hippocampus of AlCl 3 -treated rats. Furthermore, GJ-4 (25 and 50 mg/kg) exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect in the hippocampus by repressing the activation of NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, further inhibiting the activation of Caspase 1, ASC, IL-1β, and IL-18 in AD hippocampus. Altogether, GJ-4 mitigated AlCl 3 -triggered impairment of learning and memory in AD rats via repressing NLRP3 inflammasome., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Background: Gardenia jasminoides is a species of Chinese medicinal plant, which has high medicinal and economic value and rich genetic diversity, but the study on its genetic diversity is far not enough., Methods: In this study, one wild and one cultivated gardenia materials were resequenced using Illumina HiSeq sequencing platform and the data were evaluated to understand the genomic characteristics of G. jasminoide s., Results: After data analysis, the results showed that clean data of 11.77G, Q30 reached 90.96%. The average comparison rate between the sample and reference genome was 96.08%, the average coverage depth was 15X, and the genome coverage was 85.93%. The SNPs of FD and YP1 were identified, and 3,087,176 and 3,241,416 SNPs were developed, respectively. In addition, SNP non-synonymous mutation, InDel mutation, SV mutation and CNV mutation were also detected between the sample and the reference genome, and KEGG, GO and COG database annotations were made for genes with DNA level variation. The structural gene variation in the biosynthetic pathway of crocin and gardenia, the main medicinal substance of G. jasminoides was further explored, which provided basic data for molecular breeding and genetic diversity of G. jasminoide s in the future., Competing Interests: The authors declare there are no competing interests., (©2023 Xu et al.)

Muscle atrophy (MA) is a case in which protein degeneration occurs excessively due to an imbalance between protein synthesis and breakdown, and is characterized by decreased muscle mass and weakened muscle strength. Despite mounting concern about MA, the number of patients with MA is increasing every year. The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of Gardeniae Fructus (GF) hot water extract on dexamethasone (DEX)-induced MA in mice. C57BL/6N mice were grouped ( n  = 8) as follows: Normal mice (Normal), MA mice were treated with distilled water (Control), MA mice were treated with GF 100 mg/kg (GF100), MA mice were treated with GF 200 mg/kg (GF200). For 10 days, DEX (25 mg/kg body weight, i.p.) injection was used to induce MA, and GF was administered. GF treatment restored the muscle weight decreased due to MA, and in particular, the weights of EDL+TA and Sol were significantly increased in the GF200 group. Also, it was confirmed that the swimming time was improved in the GF200 group. In addition, the expression of NADPH oxidase related to oxidative stress was significantly reduced, and protective (insulin-like growth factor I/phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway) and catabolic (AMP-activated kinase [AMPK]/sirtuin 1 [SIRT1]/proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1 α (PGC-1 α )-forkhead box O (FOXO) pathway) pathways were significantly modulated. These results demonstrate that GF regulates muscle protein synthesis and catabolic pathways, and in particular, it is judged to improve MA by regulating the proteolytic AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1 α -FOXO pathway.

Gardenia blue (GB) is a natural blue pigment widely used in textiles and the pharmaceutical industry. The geniposide in gardenia fruits can be hydrolyzed by β-glucosidase to form genipin, which reacts with amino acids to produce GB. In this study, a bacterial strain which secreted thermostable β-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21) was isolated from soil and identified as Bacillus altitudinis JYY-02. This strain could potentially be used for GB production from geniposide by fermentation. Optimal fermentation results were achieved at pH 6.5 or 8.0 at 45°C for 45 h with additional sucrose. To obtain a large amount of β-glucosidase, the whole genome of B. altitudinis JYY-02 was sequenced and annotated; it is 3,727,518 bp long and contains 3,832 genes. The gene encoding β-glucosidase ( bgl ) in B. altitudinis JYY-02 was screened from the genome and overexpressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). The recombinant β-glucosidase was purified by affinity chromatography on a Ni Sepharose 6 fast flow (FF) column. The optimal temperature, pH, and K m values for the recombinant β-glucosidase were 60°C, pH 5.6, and 0.331 mM, respectively, when p-nitrophenyl-β-d-glucopyranoside (pNPG) was used as the substrate. The recombinant β-glucosidase catalyzed the deglycosylation reaction of geniposide, which was then used to produce GB. IMPORTANCE β-Glucosidases are enzymes capable of hydrolyzing β-glucosidic linkages present in saccharides and glycosides and have many agricultural and industrial applications. Although they are found in all domains of living organisms, commercial β-glucosidases are still expensive, limiting their application in industry. In the present study, a thermostable β-glucosidase-producing strain was obtained for GB production by fermentation, engineered bacteria were constructed for preparing recombinant β-glucosidase, and a one-step method to purify the recombinant enzyme was established. A large amount of purified β-glucosidase was easily obtained from the engineered bacteria for industrial applications such as GB production.

Objectives: To test the antidiabetic potential of Gardenia latifolia extract (GLE) in rats with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) + streptozotocin (STZ)., Methods: The study was carried out in June 2021. Gardenia latifolia powdered leaves were subjected to Soxhlet extraction using ethanol. Male rats were administered a low dose-40 mg/kg STZ by intraperitoneal route following 2 weeks of HFD to induce type-2 diabetic rats (T2DR). Rats were randomized into 5 groups (n=6). Group 1 (normal control; 10 ml/kg normal saline); Group 2 (diabetic control: DC); Group 3 (standard; DR + metformin, 100 mg/kg per oral); Group 4 (DR + GLE 250 mg/kg); Group 5 (DR + GLE 500 mg/kg). The treatment period extended for 2 weeks. Body weight and fasting blood glucose were determined on days 0, 7, and 14. Fasting serum insulin (FSI) levels, fasting blood glucose (FBG), HOMA-IR, antioxidant enzyme level, Insulin tolerance test (ITT), and intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT) tests were estimated., Results: Gardenia latifolia extract exhibited a marked decrease ( p <0.001) in fasting blood glucose levels. T2DR receiving a higher dose of GLE showed a greater improvement in metabolic indices (FSI, FBG, Homeostatic Model Assessment of insulin resistance). The ITT and IPGTT results demonstrated that GLE could significantly enhance insulin tolerance, glucose tolerance, and antioxidant enzyme levels in T2DR., Conclusion: Gardenia latifolia can be an ideal medicinal plant candidate for treating T2DM, and it should be investigated further for its therapeutic potential., (Copyright: © Saudi Medical Journal.)

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (G. jasminoides) fruits are used as a resource for obtaining natural colorants and in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. However, G. jasminoides presents a relatively long flowering period and different ripening periods, so there are significant differences in the accumulation of metabolites in fruits of different colors. In addition, the complete metabolic pathways of iridoidsand crocins, which are used as medicinal composition of G. jasminoides, are poorly understood at present. In this research, we comprehensively compared the transcriptome and metabolites profiles of the developmental stages and locations of iridoid and crocin biosynthesis. A large number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were detected in four groups of samples, and clear variation in the pattern of metabolite abundance and gene expression were observed among different fruit colors and parts. Geniposide and gardenoside mainly accumulated in the sarcocarp of green fruit (GFS) and the sarcocarp of red fruit (FS), respectively. Crocin mainly accumulated in the peel and sarcocarp of red fruits. In the iridoid pathway, we hypothesized that there was a transport mechanism from the sarcocarp to the peel of G. jasminoides because of the inconsistent expression of G8O, 10-HGO and IS associated with differences in fruit ripening. UGTs play an important role in the biosynthesis of the active components of G. jasminoides. Combined transcriptome and metabonomics analysis showed a negative correlation between the biosynthesis of geniposide and crocin. The redirection of the metabolic flux and the regulation of key enzymes may be the main reasons for the changes in the biosynthesis of iridoid and crocin in G. jasminoides fruit. Our study expended valuable information for functional genomic library and provided new insights for metabolic engineering of secondary metabolite in G. Jasminoides., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: Plants have evolved a panoply of specialized metabolites that increase their environmental fitness. Two examples are caffeine, a purine psychotropic alkaloid, and crocins, a group of glycosylated apocarotenoid pigments. Both classes of compounds are found in a handful of distantly related plant genera (Coffea, Camellia, Paullinia, and Ilex for caffeine; Crocus, Buddleja, and Gardenia for crocins) wherein they presumably evolved through convergent evolution. The closely related Coffea and Gardenia genera belong to the Rubiaceae family and synthesize, respectively, caffeine and crocins in their fruits., Results: Here, we report a chromosomal-level genome assembly of Gardenia jasminoides, a crocin-producing species, obtained using Oxford Nanopore sequencing and Hi-C technology. Through genomic and functional assays, we completely deciphered for the first time in any plant the dedicated pathway of crocin biosynthesis. Through comparative analyses with Coffea canephora and other eudicot genomes, we show that Coffea caffeine synthases and the first dedicated gene in the Gardenia crocin pathway, GjCCD4a, evolved through recent tandem gene duplications in the two different genera, respectively. In contrast, genes encoding later steps of the Gardenia crocin pathway, ALDH and UGT, evolved through more ancient gene duplications and were presumably recruited into the crocin biosynthetic pathway only after the evolution of the GjCCD4a gene., Conclusions: This study shows duplication-based divergent evolution within the coffee family (Rubiaceae) of two characteristic secondary metabolic pathways, caffeine and crocin biosynthesis, from a common ancestor that possessed neither complete pathway. These findings provide significant insights on the role of tandem duplications in the evolution of plant specialized metabolism.

Gardeniae Fructus was a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) containing various biological ingredients including iridoids and crocetins, monocyclic monoterpenes, organic acids, and flavonoids. However, few systematic identification studies of the bioactive components in vivo have been reported. Herein, the ingredients and metabolites of Gardeniae Fructus were investigated using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-sensitivity Q-TOF mass spectrometry. A total of 45 prototype compounds in Gardeniae Fructus extract were tentatively identified. After oral administration, 69 of prototypes and metabolites were identified from mice bile, plasma, urine, and feces, in which, 31 compounds were prototypes, and 38 chemicals were metabolites. The in vivo biotransformation pathways of these metabolites were also proposed including phase I (hydrolysis, hydrogenation, oxidation, loss of O, and ketone formation, decarboxylation) and phase II reactions (glycine, cysteine, glutathione, and glutamine, and sulfate conjugation, and glucuronidation). For the first time, our results had revealed systematic metabolic profiles of ingredients in Gardeniae Fructus extract in vivo of mice and replenished novel knowledge into the explanation of effective material and/or toxicological basis of Gardeniae Fructus which deserves further investigation., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Fructus Gardeniae-Fructus Forsythiae herb pair is an herbal formula used extensively to treat inflammation and fever, but few systematic identification studies of the bioactive components have been reported. Herein, the unknown analogues in the first-step screening were rapidly identified from representative compounds in different structure types (geniposide as iridoid type, crocetin as crocetin type, jasminoside B as monocyclic monoterpene type, oleanolic acid as saponin type, 3-caffeoylquinic acid as organic acid type, forsythoside A as phenylethanoid type, phillyrin as lignan type and quercetin 3-rutinoside as flavonoid type) by UPLC-Q-Tof/MS combined with mass defect filtering (MDF), and further confirmed with reference standards and published literatures. Similarly, in the second step, other unknown components were rapidly discovered from the compounds identified in the first step by MDF. Using the two-step screening method, a total of 58 components were characterized in Fructus Gardeniae-Fructus Forsythiae (FG-FF) decoction. In rat's blood, 36 compounds in extract and 16 metabolites were unambiguously or tentatively identified. Besides, we found the principal metabolites were glucuronide conjugates, with the glucuronide conjugates of caffeic acid, quercetin and kaempferol confirmed as caffeic acid 3-glucuronide, quercetin 3-glucuronide and kaempferol 3-glucuronide by reference standards, respectively. Additionally, most of them bound more strongly to human serum albumin than their respective prototypes, predicted by Molecular Docking and Simulation, indicating that they had lower blood clearance in vivo and possibly more contribution to pharmacological effects. This study developed a novel two-step screening method in addressing how to comprehensively screen components in herbal medicine by UPLC-Q-Tof/MS with MDF., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A new UHPLC-DAD-MS method based on a Core-Shell particles column was developed to realize the rapid separation of saffron stigma metabolites (Crocus sativus L.). A single separation of 35 compounds included cis and trans-crocetin esters (crocins), cis-crocetin, trans-crocetin, kaempferol derivatives, safranal, and picrocrocin from pure saffron stigmas. This method permitted the detection of 11 picrocrocin derivatives as the typical group of compounds from saffron as well as the detection of gardenia-specific compounds as typical adulterant markers. The metabolite concentration in a Standardized Saffron Extract (SSE) was determined using the method described herein and by comparison to the ISO3632 conventional method. The safranal content was 5-150 times lower than the value of 2% that was expected via ISO3632 analyses. Using the same Core-Shell separation, geniposide detection appeared to be a relevant approach for detecting the adulteration of saffron by using gardenia., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This article reports the utilization of seed extract (GSE) from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. in the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Gs-AgNPs) with versatile biological activities. The synthesized Gs-AgNPs were spherical in shape, crystal lattice with an average size of 20 nm as confirmed by UV-vis spectrum, X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy with Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (TEM-EDS) and particle size analyses (PSA). Phenolic compounds, proteins, and terpenoids were likely involved in the Gs-AgNPs synthesis, as indicated by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. The minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the Gs-AgNPs was 12.5 μg·ml -1 for S. enterica Typhimurium and 10 μg·ml -1 for S. aureus. The MBC of the Gs-AgNPs induced >70% bacterial cell death within 60 min, as confirmed by growth curve analysis followed by Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM). Gs-AgNPs showed the highest scavenging activity for 1, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl DPPH radical (92.3 ± 0.86%), Nitric oxide (NO) radical (72.5 ± 2.15%), and Hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 radical (85.25 ± 1.45%). Anticancer results revealed an IC 50 of 15.625 ± 1.3 μg·ml -1 for Gs-AgNPs, whereas it was 580.54 ± 2.5 μg·ml -1 for GSE. The Gs-AgNPs generated high reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting in induced apoptosis as evident by up-regulation of apoptosis-related protein. In addition, the photocatalytic results revealed about 92% of the reduction in Coomassie Brilliant Blue dye color with Gs-AgNPs. Hence, this work provided economically viable and ecologically sustainable Gs-AgNPs as an alternative biomaterial for future therapeutic applications as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-cancer agents and in dye degradation for water remediation., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Modern studies have indicated Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (G. jasminoides) showed positive effect in treating type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In this study, 60 streptozotocin-induced T2DM rats were divided into four groups: type 2 diabetes control group, geniposide-treated group, total iridoid glycosides-treated group, and crude extraction of gardenlae fructus-treated group. The other ten healthy rats were the healthy control group. During 12 weeks of treatment, rat's feces samples were collected for the metabolomics study based on mass spectrometry technique. On the basis of the fecal metabolomics method, 19 potential biomarkers were screened and their relative intensities in each group were compared. The results revealed G. jasminoides mainly regulated dysfunctions in phenylalanine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, and secondary bile acid biosynthesis pathways induced by diabetes. The current study provides new insight for metabonomics methodology toward T2DM, and the results show that feces can preferably reflect the liver and intestines disorders.

The gum of Gardenia resinifera Roth., is one of the important drugs used in the Indian system of medicine and a source of unique polymethoxylated flavones. This study was aimed to evaluate the antihyperlipidemic and anti-NAFLD effects of Gardenin A (Gar-A) from G. resinifera gum using in vitro and in vivo models. Gar-A was isolated from G. resinifera gum and was identified on the basis of the physical and spectral data. Toxicity of Gar-A to HepG2 cells was evaluated using MTT assay. The ability of Gar-A to reduce steatosis was assessed using oleate-palmitate induced HepG2 cell lines by estimating the lipid levels by ORO staining and by estimating the intracellular triglyceride content. Effect of Gar-A on amelioration of lipotoxicity was measured by estimating the LDH levels. The doses for in vivo experiments were fixed by Irwin test, between 50 and 100 mg/kg concentrations, through oral route. The acute antihyperlipidemic effect of Gar-A was assessed in Triton WR-1339 induced hyperlipidemic animals. The chronic antihyperlipidemic and anti-NAFLD effects of Gar-A were evaluated in HFD fed rats. In vitro experiments with HepG2 cell line indicated that the cells treated with Gar-A did not show any significant reduction in the viability up to 70 μg/mL concentration. Steatotic HepG2 cells treated with Gar-A showed a significant reduction in lipid accumulation at 2.5-10 μg/mL concentrations. In triton induced hyperlipidemic rats, the treatment significantly reduced the lipid levels at the synthesis phase. The treatment with Gar-A to the HFD fed animals significantly lowered the steatosis and transaminase levels. The other biochemical parameters such as TC, TG, LDL-c, ALP and ACP were also decreased significantly. Treatment with Gar-A significantly lowered the hyperlipidemia and fat accumulation in the liver; detailed molecular investigations are necessary to establish the antihyperlipidemic and hepatoprotective potentials of Gar-A., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Gardeniae Fructus (GF, Zhi Zi in China), a fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, has been used in traditional medicine to reduce inflammation and headache and to treat hepatic disorders, hypertension, and icterus. In recent studies, extract of raw or stir-baked GF was shown to have pharmacological activities for viral infection, thrombosis, hyperlipidemia, convulsion, inflammation, oxidative stress, and others. In addition, baked GF extract suppressed the proteolytic activities and altered the cellular morphology of tumor cells. However, the effects of ethanol extract of baked GF (EBGF) on the metastatic and angiogenic capacities of malignant tumor cells and its detailed mechanism of action have not been reported. In this study, we found that EBGF significantly inhibited phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced MMP-9 and -13 and uPA expression via suppression of PMA-induced nuclear translocation of NF-κBp65. Metastatic potential, including migration, invasion, and colonization, was substantially reduced by EBGF with no cytotoxicity. In addition, EBGF attenuated tumor-induced angiogenesis, including microvessel sprouting, migration of endothelial cells (ECs), and tube formation of ECs, by inhibiting the release of pro-angiogenic factors from tumor cells. In C57BL/6 mice, we observed that daily administration of EBGF at 50 and 100 mg/kg suppressed metastatic colonization of B16F10 melanoma cells in the lungs. Furthermore, EBGF administration did not cause adverse effects, suggesting that EBGF is safe and may be a potential herbal medicine capable of controlling metastatic malignant cancers.

Saffron is a spice comprised of the dried stigmas and styles of Crocus sativus L. flowers and, since it is very expensive, it is frequently adulterated. So far, proteomic tools have never been applied to characterize the proteome of saffron or identify possible cases of fraud. In this study, 1D-Gel Electrophoresis was carried out to characterize the protein profile of (i) fresh stigmas and styles of the plant; (ii) dried stigmas and styles from different geographical origins (Spanish, Italian, Greek and Iranian) that had been stored for various periods of time after their processing; and (iii) two common plant adulterants, dried petals of Carthamus tinctorius L. and dried fruits of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. A selective protein extraction protocol was applied to avoid interference from colored saffron metabolites, such as crocins, during electrophoretic analyses of saffron. We succeeded in separating and assigning the molecular weights to more than 20 proteins. In spite of the unavailability of the genome of saffron, we were able to identify five proteins by Peptide Mass Fingerprinting: phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase 3, heat shock cognate 70 KDa protein, crocetin glucosyltransferase 2, α-1,4-glucan-protein synthase and glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenase-2. Our findings indicate that (i) few bands are present in all saffron samples independently of origin and storage time, with amounts that significantly vary among samples and (ii) aging during saffron storage is associated with a reduction in the number of detectable bands, suggesting that proteases are still active. The protein pattern of saffron was quite distinct from those of two common adulterants, such as the dried petals of Carthamus tinctorius and the dried fruits of Gardenia jasminoides indicating that proteomic analyses could be exploited for detecting possible frauds.

Tree species in seasonally dry tropical forests likely vary in their drought-survival mechanisms. Drought-deciduousness, which reduces water loss, and low wood density, which may permit dependence on stored water, are considered key traits. For saplings of six species at two distinct sites, we studied these and two associated traits: the seasonal amount of water released per stem volume ("water released") and the hydraulic capacitance of the stem (C). Two deciduous species with low stem density, Cavanillesia platanifolia and Bursera simaruba, had high C and high dry-season stem water potential (Ψ(stem)), but differed in dry-season water released. C. platanifolia did not use stored water during the dry season whereas B. simaruba, in a drier forest, released stored water. In both, water released was highest while flushing leaves, suggesting that stored water supports leaf flushing. In contrast, two deciduous species with intermediate stem density, Annona hayesii and Genipa americana, had intermediate C, low dry-season Ψ(stem), and high seasonal change in water released. Meanwhile, two evergreen species with intermediate stem density, Cojoba rufescens and Astronium graveolens, had relatively low C, low dry-season Ψ(stem), and intermediate seasonal change in water released. Thus, at least three, distinct stored-water-use strategies were observed. Additionally, bark relative water content (RWC) decreased along with Ψ(stem) during the dry season while xylem RWC did not change, suggesting that bark-stored water buffers Ψ(stem) seasonally. Together these results suggest that seasonal use of stored water and change in Ψ(stem) are associated with functional groups that are characterized by combinations of deciduousness and stem density.

The present study provided a new approach to enhance the stability of protein-emulsified nanoemulsions and to control the lipase digestibility of lipid droplets through spontaneous cross-linking of the interfacial layer with genipin, a functional ingredient isolated from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides E. Cross-linking casein-emulsified nanoemulsions under different genipin/casein mass ratios (1:20, 1:10, 1:5) significantly (p < 0.05) or very significantly (p < 0.01) enhanced their stability under harsh gastric pH environments and prevented nanoemulsion flocculation. As observed by transmission electron microscope (TEM), under the pH 1.2 condition, the genipin cross-linked nanoemulsion showed more compact microstructure with clear and defined contour as well as "core-shell" structure caused by the swelling of the surface protein film. Interestingly, the intestinal digestibility of lipid droplets was delayed very significantly (p < 0.01) after cross-linking the interfacial casein layer with genipin, which was enhanced by the increase in genipin/casein mass ratio and cross-linking time.

In this work, synergism and antagonism among active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) were studied at system-level by using molecular imprinting technology. Reduning Injection (RDNI), a TCM injection, was widely used to relieve fever caused by viral infection diseases in China. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) synthesized by sol-gel method were used to separate caffeic acid (CA) and analogues from RDNI without affecting other compounds. It can realize the preparative scale separation. The inhibitory effects of separated samples of RDNI and sample combinations in prostaglandin E2 biosynthesis in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 cells were studied. The combination index was calculated to evaluate the synergism and antagonism. We found that components which had different scaffolds can produce synergistic anti-inflammatory effect inside and outside the RDNI. Components which had similar scaffolds exhibited the antagonistic effect, and the antagonistic effects among components could be reduced to some extent in RDNI system. The results indicated MIPs with the characteristics of specific adsorption ability and large scale preparation can be an effective approach to study the interaction mechanism among active ingredients of complex system such as TCM at system-level. And this work would provide a new idea to study the interactions among active ingredients of TCM.

A simple and novel process has been proposed to synthesize alumina using gardenia extract and aluminum salts in an aqueous solution. The alumina sample notated as "bio-Al₂O₃" was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and nitrogen adsorption-desorption experiment. The results indicated that the existence of the gardenia biomass enlarged the surface area of alumina and reached 256 m(2)/g. The thermo gravimetric (TG), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) results showed that gardenia biomass bound to the surface of the alumina has substantially improved the adsorption capacity of Ni(II) and the adsorption behavior of nickel ion was related to the biomass functional groups. The results of three adsorption-desorption cycles showed that the bio-Al₂O₃ using as the adsorbent for Ni(II) was relatively stable. The kinetic of the Ni(II) adsorption by the bio-Al₂O₃ followed pseudo-second-order equation. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models were applied to analyze the experimental data and the result demonstrated that the adsorption isotherms followed Langmuir isotherm model., (Crown Copyright © 2013. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The gum resin exuding from the leaf buds of Gardenia gummifera was investigated. Eight new cycloartane triterpenes, 1-6, 8, and 10, together with two known triterpenes, 25-hydroxycycloart-23-en-3-one (7) and cycloartenone (9), were isolated and identified by extensive NMR spectroscopy. For cycloartenone (9), full NMR assignments are given as these data were not available in the literature. Eight compounds possess a C(3)=O group, two are 3,4-secocycloartanes bearing a free C(3)OOH group; in one of the cycloartanes, gummiferartane-9 (10), ring A occurs as a seven-membered lactone., (Copyright © 2013 Verlag Helvetica Chimica Acta AG, Zürich.)

A direct one-pot production of genipin, an iridoid aglycone, from crude gardenia fruit was developed. The method relied on the use of single cellulase to disrupt plant cells and to cleave off sugar molecules simultaneously, thereby enhancing the release of intracellular iridoids and converting geniposide to genipin. During the biocatalysis, eco-friendly ethyl acetate was used to extract the product, providing the partial purification and the minimization of genipin degradation. By using 10 mg/mL cellulase and 24 h-incubation at 50 °C, pH 4, combined with in situ extraction, genipin with good purity was yielded at 58.83 mg/g, which increased 12.38 and 1.72 times compared with those obtained from the procedures without either the aid of enzyme or in situ extraction, respectively. Therefore, this integrated approach is promising for the production of genipin and should be potentially applied to the preparation of other plant aglycones., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Changes that may be expected in crocetin esters (crocins) upon digestion were examined in saffron aqueous extracts for the first time. Chemical characterization of total and individual crocins and other bioactive compounds was achieved by UV-vis spectrophotometry, RP-HPLC-DAD, and LC-ESI-MS. Antioxidant activity was evaluated using in vitro assays and the comet assay. The observed loss for both total and trans-crocins was higher in saffron (∼50%) than in gardenia extracts (∼30%), which were also examined for comparison. Loss was lower than that reported for hydrophobic carotenoids. cis-Isomers were less affected, leading to the hypothesis that trans/cis isomerization may occur in parallel to degradation reactions. Monitoring changes in the extracts at oral, gastric, or intestinal phases, separately, verified this view pointing out the critical effect of pH, temperature, and duration of process but not of digestive enzymes. No isomerization and less degradation (<20% loss) was evidenced when pure trans-crocetin (di-β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester was subjected to gastric or intestinal conditions.

Three new iridoid glycosides, 6″-O-trans-feruloylgenipin gentiobioside (1), 2'-O-trans-p-coumaroylgardoside (2), 2'-O-trans-feruloylgardoside (3), were isolated from the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans MAKINO (Rubiaceae). The structures of these compounds were elucidated on the basis of MS, NMR spectra analysis, glycoside hydrolysis, and sugar derivatization coupled with HPLC analysis.

Crocin is an apocarotenoid glycosyl ester accumulating in fruits of Gardenia jasminoides and used as a food coloring and nutraceutical. For the first time, the two glucosyltransferases UGT75L6 and UGT94E5 that sequentially mediate the final glucosylation steps in crocin biosynthesis in G. jasminoides have been identified and functionally characterized. UGT75L6 preferentially glucosylates the carboxyl group of crocetin yielding crocetin glucosyl esters, while UGT94E5 glucosylates the 6' hydroxyl group of the glucose moiety of crocetin glucosyl esters. The expression pattern of neither UGT75L6 nor UGT94E5 correlated with the pattern of crocin accumulation in G. jasminoides., (Copyright © 2012 Federation of European Biochemical Societies. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis' water crude extract was used for the bioreduction of palladium chloride in this paper. The UV-vis spectrum, x-ray diffraction spectrum measurement, the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and TEM technique confirmed the formation of palladium nanoparticles and identified antioxidants including geniposide, chlorogenic acid, crocins and crocetin were reducing and stabilizing agents for synthesizing palladium nanoparticles in water crude extract. The particle size and dispersity were temperature-dependent. The particle sizes ranged from 3 to 5 nm and revealed the best dispersity at 70 degrees C. Catalytic performance of the biosynthetic Pd nanoparticles with good dispersity was investigated by hydrogenation of p-nitrotoluene. The catalysts showed a conversion of 100% under conditions of 5 MPa, 150 degrees C for 2 h. The selectivity of p-methyl-cyclohexylamine achieved 26.3%. The catalyst was recycled five times with no agglomeration and maintained activity, which was attributed to the appropriate protection of the antioxidants. On the basis of the study, it appears to be a new promising biosynthetic nanocatalyst for the development of an industrial process.

The effect of ultrasound on the leaching process, in which Geniposide is leached from the Gardenia fruit by deionized water at 20 degrees C, was investigated. The phase equilibrium and the dynamics were measured at static, stirring, and ultrasonically assisted conditions, respectively. The experimental results show that the extraction yield of Geniposide with ultrasound at 0.1533 W cm(-2), is increased by 16.5%, in comparison with that without ultrasound when the ratio of the solvent volume to the fruit weight is 40 ml/g. A model for mass transfer, based on the intraparticle diffusion and the external mass transfer, was developed. And the dynamic curves calculated by the model are in a good agreement with the experimental data. The external mass transfer coefficient k(f)/R and intraparticle diffusion coefficient D(e)/R2 were obtained by fitting of the experiment data. The external mass transfer coefficient with ultrasound at 0.1533 W cm(-2) is 1.63 times higher than that in static process, and the intraparticle diffusion coefficient with ultrasound at 0.1533 W cm(-2) is 3.25 times higher than that in static process.

In vitro and ex vitro rooting of gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) microshoots with or without indolic-3-butyric acid (IBA) was studied in order to improve acclimatization of microplants after root formation and transplantation. Peroxidase (POD) activity and isoforms, lignin content and anatomical observations were evaluated in the course of the three interdependent phases (induction, initiation and expression) of microshoot rooting. Microshoots treated or not treated with IBA achieved high rooting percentages both in vitro and ex vitro. At the end of the 2-week acclimatization period, the percentage of surviving microplants ranged from 80% to 100%, for in vitro and ex vitro rooted microshoots, respectively. Microshoots rooted in vitro and ex vitro showed a relationship between rooting and POD activity but in a different time course. It appeared that root formation occurred after the microshoots had reached and passed a peak of maximum enzyme activity. In all treatments, electrophoretic analysis (native PAGE) of PODs revealed the appearance of one anionic and three cationic POD isoforms (C(1), C(3) and C(4)). An additional cationic POD isoform (C(2)) appeared only in the ex vitro rooting. The lignin content was similar in microshoots rooted both in vitro and ex vitro. The sequential anatomical changes during the rooting process were similar in both in vitro and ex vitro rooting treatments. In the case of in vitro rooting, pith cells had vacuoles entirely filled with a dark substance, while in the case of ex vitro rooting, pith cells contained many amyloplasts. The origin of the adventitious roots, in both rooting conditions, was located in the cambial ring. Roots with organized tissue systems emerged from the microshoot stem 10-14 days after the root induction treatments; on day 10 for rooting in vitro, while a 4-day delay was noted in microshoots rooted ex vitro.

A rapid, rugged, and inexpensive approach is described to develop chemical fingerprints of volatile and semivolatile fractions in herbal medicine. The method is based on the combination of direct sample introduction and gas chromatography (GC) analysis with mass spectrometry detection. In comparison with routine methods, the proposed approach provides the most informative fingerprint and does not demand time-consuming extraction, pretreatment, and cleanup procedures. The approach was applied to establish the GC fingerprint of gardenia fruit (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis), in which 39 components were identified. With the help of principal components analysis, the obtained fingerprint could reveal the variation in and within different herb samples as affected by season and developmental state (wild or cultivated). The results indicated that the proposed approach could serve as a rapid, simple, and effective technique for the quality control of herbal medicines.