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This brief describes how several commonly used per-pupil funding measures derived from federal data include passthrough funding in the numerator but exclude students attached to this funding from the denominator, artificially inflating per-pupil ratios. Three forms of passthrough funding for students not educated by the school district where they reside are included in district-level funding totals: payments to private schools (V91), payments to charter schools (V92), and payments to other school systems (Q11). We illustrate this error in Pennsylvania and New Jersey and use data from all 46 impacted states to show how racial and economic funding gaps are understated as a result.

In the United States, researchers have documented persistent racial disparities in school funding for decades. Drawing on evidence from a recent policy change in Pennsylvania, this article contributes to research on the role of state governments in limiting or expanding racial disparities in K-12 education funding by examining differences in the racial composition of school districts positively and negatively impacted by a technical provision lawmakers inserted into a newly created formula for distributing state equalization aid. We find that negatively-impacted districts enroll a substantially higher number of Black and Latinx students, receive less state aid, have lower levels of state and local funding, and have lower spending levels than positively-impacted districts with otherwise similar financial needs. These findings suggest how state lawmakers can exacerbate racial inequities when pursuing reforms ostensibly focused on equity, and these results have implications for both policymakers and educational leaders focused on racial justice.

Using a mixed methods approach that combined state-level institutional data and local interview and school district data, this research examined how COVID-19 has (re)shaped rural school districts’ ongoing efforts to identify and address equity concerns along geographic, fiscal, instructional, and racial/ethnic lines across Pennsylvania. This analysis examined institutional and socio-demographic features and trends, with in-depth local analysis from a stratified sample of districts. Analyses across rural Pennsylvania districts, as well as deeper case study analyses of selected districts, focused on understanding how rural districts have defined, responded, and adapted to equity concerns amid the pandemic, and analyzed district factors that might help to explain variations in responses and outcomes. This project’s research questions were: (1) What are the key equity challenges faced by rural Pennsylvania school districts in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic? (2) What types of equity issues are rural district leaders (e.g., school board directors and superintendents) aware of, and in what ways do their planned and/or implemented responses prioritize equity, if at all? (3) What are the key policy implications for addressing educational inequities in rural Pennsylvania school districts as schools gradually transition out of pandemic conditions? Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, public schools in rural Pennsylvania already faced a range of serious challenges including persistent poverty, funding disparities, lack of broadband access, and declining enrollments. The pandemic has served to deepen these and other forms of inequities, posing pressing challenges for the creation of timely and effective policy., Rural Policy - The Research Bulletin of the Center for Rural Pennsylvania, Vol. 1 No. 1 (2022): Rural Policy: Inaugural Issue

This article examines how three relatively recent decisions enacted and upheld by Pennsylvania lawmakers have increased racial disparities in education funding and are helping to explode what Ladson-Billings has termed the educational debt. We find that districts with the highest concentrations of Black and Latinx students are profoundly underfunded. We find that these districts spent $2 billion less than they needed—according to calculations lawmakers enacted into state law in 2008—for their students to have a chance to meet the standards the state set for them. We also find that these districts would have received an additional $1.4 billion in state aid to help them address this underfunding if lawmakers had not abandoned a 2008 formula and an additional $918 million in state funding if lawmakers had used current formulas to distribute their two largest subsidies to school districts. We find that a vast majority of children in Pennsylvania are harmed by these policies. We also find that Black and Latinx students are being particularly shortchanged. We find that districts with the largest proportions of Black and Latinx students are harmed at substantially higher rates than districts with the lowest proportions of Black and Latinx students, even after we restrict our comparison to higher-poverty districts.

This article investigates trends in the relative wealth of the richest school districts in the United States between 2000 and 2015. For the purposes of discussion, I focus on the top 1% of districts. I argue that trends in school funding for the richest districts deserve greater attention from education researchers. Districts in the top 1% of the cost-adjusted, national school funding distribution are disproportionately suburban, affluent, and White. The relative wealth of these districts increased sharply (31.59%) between 2000 and 2015. Disaggregating these trends reveals large variation between states. Nevertheless, resource concentration in the top percentile of school districts increased in a large majority of states. These findings cannot be explained by efforts to provide additional educational resources to students with the greatest needs, and they suggest the ways in which the concentration of affluence accompanying growing economic inequality may be changing school funding.

In Pennsylvania’s Marcellus Shale region, the recent shale gas boom profoundly reshaped communities, local institutions, and living circumstances for many residents. We focus on one particular loca...

Background/Context Dealing mostly in aggregate statistics that mask important regional variations, scholars often assume that district property taxation and the resource disparities this approach to school funding creates are deeply rooted in the history of American education. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study This article explores the history of district property taxation and school funding disparities in California during the 19th and 20th centuries. First, the article documents the limited use of district property taxation for school funding in California and several other Western states during the 19th century, showing that the development of school finance was more complicated than standard accounts suggest. Then, the article examines how a coalition of experts, activists, and politicians worked together during the early 20th century to promote district property taxation and institutionalize the idea that the wealth of local communities, rather than the wealth of the entire state, should determine the resources available for public schooling. Research Design This article draws on primary source documents from state and regional archives, including district-level funding data from nine Northern California counties, to complete a historical analysis. Conclusions/Recommendations The history of California's district property tax suggests the need for continued research on long-term trends in school finance and educational inequality. Popular accounts minimizing the historical role of state governments in school funding obscure how public policies, not just market forces shaping property values, create funding inequalities. In turn, these accounts communicate powerful messages about the supposed inevitability of funding disparities and the responsibility of state governments to correct them. Through increased attention to long-term trends in school funding, scholars can help popular commentators and policymakers avoid assumptions that naturalize inequality and narrow the possibilities for future funding reforms.

Background. Individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF) have persistent lung infections, necessitating the frequent use of antibiotics for pulmonary exacerbations. Some respiratory pathogens have intrinsic resistance to the currently available antibiotics, and any pathogen may acquire resistance over time, posing a challenge to CF care. Gaseous nitric oxide has been shown to have antimicrobial activity against a wide variety of microorganisms, including common CF pathogens, and offers a potential inhaled antimicrobial therapy. Case Presentation. Here, we present the case of a 16-year-old female with CF who experienced a precipitous decline in lung function over the prior year in conjunction with worsening antibiotic resistance of her primary pathogen, Burkholderia multivorans. She received 46 intermittent inhalations of 160 parts-per-million nitric oxide over a 28-day period. The gas was administered via a mechanical ventilator fitted with nitrogen dioxide scavenging chambers. Conclusions. High-dose inhaled nitric oxide was safe, well tolerated, and showed clinical benefit in an adolescent with cystic fibrosis and pulmonary colonization with Burkholderia multivorans.

In this article, I use a case study of education in nineteenth-century Oregon to place the twentieth-century phenomenon of ‘shopping for schools’ within a broader historical context. In doing so, I...

This article explores how education reformers in California pioneered forms of centralized educational governance between 1850 and 1879. Challenging previous scholarship that has attributed the success of this early educational state to reformer John Swett and New England migrants, this article situates the creation of common schools in California within the larger context of American state-building in the nineteenth-century West. While increased state authority over education was a goal for reformers across the nation, this article contends that California's early innovations in centralization reflected a regionally specific response to the dilemmas of governing a recently acquired territory distant from eastern centers of power. The precarious nature of elite attempts to convert California into an American place, reflected in perceived lawlessness, weak governmental authority, and racial anxiety, inspired forms of educational organization commonly associated with Progressive Era responses to industrialization, urbanization, and immigration. The desire to promote nineteenth-century American racial and governmental order in California, this article concludes, powerfully shaped the growth of public education in the state, influencing the organization of schooling in ways that suggest the importance of looking beyond the Northeast to understand the development of public education in the United States.

This essay explores the historiography of American and European education, considering how educational historians communicate powerful messages about the purposes and promises of schooling through their writing. I divide the historiography of American education into four interpretive traditions: traditionalism, radical revisionism, progressive revisionism, and plural revisionism. Each phase of the historiography, I argue, has supported particular myths about the relationship between public schooling and society. European historians have shared many of the interpretive assumptions contained within traditionalist, radical revisionist, and progressive revisionist scholarship, conveying similar myths to their US counterparts. Contemporary histories of European education, however, are distinct from recent histories of the US. In comparing the divergent trajectories of these two historiographies, I conclude by suggesting the strengths and weaknesses of contemporary scholarship in both fields, an assessment deri...

The objective of this study was to examine if negative emotion can play an influential role on inhibition through attentional control. Higher levels of working memory capacity (WMC) have been correlated with faster inhibition times attributed to greater tolerance of automatic processes and better attentional control (Miller, 2014). This study attempted to replicate this relationship then use emotion to modulate the relationship. Participants were tested using the Operation Span (OSPAN) task to estimate their WMC, then given an emotional induction, either negative or neutral, via a film clip. After the induction they were asked to complete the Stop-Signal task (SST) to assess response inhibition. The neutral condition showed the expected correlation between increased OSPAN score and faster inhibition times provid ing support for the role of WMC in attentional control. The negative condition showed an altered pattern, which may indicate emotion as a significant factor in attentional control. Ultimately, this study found preliminary evidence for the necessity of attentional control in regulating emotional responses.