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A primary mode of human social behavior is face-to-face interaction. In this study, we investigated the characteristics of gaze and its relation to speech behavior during video-mediated face-to-face interactions between parents and their preadolescent children. 81 parent-child dyads engaged in conversations about cooperative and conflictive family topics. We used a dual-eye tracking setup that is capable of concurrently recording eye movements, frontal video, and audio from two conversational partners. Our results show that children spoke more in the cooperation-scenario whereas parents spoke more in the conflict-scenario. Parents gazed slightly more at the eyes of their children in the conflict-scenario compared to the cooperation-scenario. Both parents and children looked more at the other's mouth region while listening compared to while speaking. Results are discussed in terms of the role that parents and children take during cooperative and conflictive interactions and how gaze behavior may support and coordinate such interactions., Author(s): Gijs A. Holleman [sup.1] , Ignace T. C. Hooge [sup.1] , Jorg Huijding [sup.2] , Maja Dekovic [sup.2] , Chantal Kemner [sup.1] , Roy S. Hessels [sup.1] Author Affiliations: [...]

Purpose: Visual cues from a speaker's face may benefit perceptual adaptation to degraded speech, but current evidence is limited. We aimed to replicate results from previous studies to establish the extent to which visual speech cues can lead to greater adaptation over time, extending existing results to a real-time adaptation paradigm (i.e., without a separate training period). A second aim was to investigate whether eye gaze patterns toward the speaker's mouth were related to better perception, hypothesizing that listeners who looked more at the speaker's mouth would show greater adaptation. Method: A group of listeners (n = 30) was presented with 90 noise-vocoded sentences in audiovisual format, whereas a control group (n = 29) was presented with the audio signal only. Recognition accuracy was measured throughout and eye tracking was used to measure fixations toward the speaker's eyes and mouth in the audiovisual group. Results: Previous studies were partially replicated: The audiovisual group had better recognition throughout and adapted slightly more rapidly, but both groups showed an equal amount of improvement overall. Longer fixations on the speaker's mouth in the audiovisual group were related to better overall accuracy. An exploratory analysis further demonstrated that the duration of fixations to the speaker's mouth decreased over time. Conclusions: The results suggest that visual cues may not benefit adaptation to degraded speech as much as previously thought. Longer fixations on a speaker's mouth may play a role in successfully decoding visual speech cues; however, this will need to be confirmed in future research to fully understand how patterns of eye gaze are related to audiovisual speech recognition. All materials, data, and code are available at https://osf.io/ 2wqkf/., Human communication often takes place in suboptimal listening conditions such as in noisy environments, listening to a distorted phone or video signal, or encountering unfamiliar speech such as a foreign [...]

Purpose: A striking characteristic of the social communication deficits in individuals with autism is atypical patterns of eye contact during social interactions. We used eye-tracking technology to evaluate how the number of human figures depicted and the presence of sharing activity between the human figures in still photographs influenced visual attention by individuals with autism, typical development, or Down syndrome. We sought to examine visual attention to the contents of visual scene displays, a growing form of augmentative and alternative communication support. Method: Eye-tracking technology recorded point-of-gaze while participants viewed 32 photographs in which either 2 or 3 human figures were depicted. Sharing activities between these human figures are either present or absent. The sampling rate was 60 Hz; that is, the technology gathered 60 samples of gaze behavior per second, per participant. Gaze behaviors, including latency to fixate and time spent fixating, were quantified. Results: The overall gaze behaviors were quite similar across groups, regardless of the social content depicted. However, individuals with autism were significantly slower than the other groups in latency to first view the human figures, especially when there were 3 people depicted in the photographs (as compared with 2 people). When participants' own viewing pace was considered, individuals with autism resembled those with Down syndrome. Conclusion: The current study supports the inclusion of social content with various numbers of human figures and sharing activities between human figures into visual scene displays, regardless of the population served. Study design and reporting practices in eye-tracking literature as it relates to autism and Down syndrome are discussed. Supplemental Material: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha. 6066545, Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) often relies on visual supports for the development of receptive and expressive communication. When the visual supports involve tools or equipment such as pictures, line [...]

Purpose: This research investigated a first step in implementing the dynamic assessment (DA) component of Triadic Gaze Intervention (Olswang, Feuerstein, Pinder, & Dowden, 2013; Olswang et al., 2014), an evidence-based protocol for teaching early signals of communication to young children with physical disabilities. Clinician attitudes about adopting external evidence into practice and implementation fidelity in DA protocol delivery were examined following training. Method: Seven early intervention clinicians from multiple disciplines were trained to deliver the four essential elements of the DA protocol: (a) provide communication opportunity, (b) recognize child's potentially communicative signal, (c) shape child's signal toward triadic gaze, and (d) reinforce with play. Clinician attitude regarding adopting evidence into practice was measured at baseline and follow-up, with the Evidence-Based Practice Attitude Scale (Aarons, 2004). Implementation fidelity in delivering the protocol was measured for adherence (accuracy) and competence (quality) during trial implementation. Results: Clinicians' attitudes about trying new evidence that at first was perceived as incongruent with their practice improved over the course of the research. Clinicians demonstrated strong adherence to the DA protocol; however, competence varied across clinicians and appeared related to child performance. Conclusions: The results provided insight into moving Triadic Gaze Intervention into practice and yielded valuable information regarding the implementation process, with implications for future research., Communication sciences and disorders, similar to education and other health care disciplines, has encouraged its professionals to conduct evidence-based practice (EBP), which requires integration of the available external research evidence, [...]

Purpose: The aim of this article is to examine the effects of visual image degradation on performance and gaze behavior in audiovisual and visual-only speech perception tasks. Method: We presented vowel-consonant-vowel utterances visually filtered at a range of frequencies in visual-only, audiovisual congruent, and audiovisual incongruent conditions (Experiment 1; N = 66). In Experiment 2 (N = 20), participants performed a visual-only speech perception task and in Experiment 3 (N = 20) an audiovisual task while having their gaze behavior monitored using eye-tracking equipment. Results: In the visual-only condition, increasing image resolution led to monotonic increases in performance, and proficient speechreaders were more affected by the removal of high spatial information than were poor speechreaders. The McGurk effect also increased with increasing visual resolution, although it was less affected by the removal of high-frequency information. Observers tended to fixate on the mouth more in visual-only perception, but gaze toward the mouth did not correlate with accuracy of silent speechreading or the magnitude of the McGurk effect. Conclusions: The results suggest that individual differences in silent speechreading and the McGurk effect are not related. This conclusion is supported by differential influences of high-resolution visual information on the 2 tasks and differences in the pattern of gaze., Understanding speech is a vital part of our daily life for social, emotional, and informational purposes. Although audition plays an important role in perceiving speech information, vision is also an [...]

Potential relations between gaze cueing, social use of gaze, and ability to follow line of sight were examined in children with autism and typically developing peers. Children with autism (mean age = 10 years) demonstrated intact gaze cueing. However, they preferred to follow arrows instead of eyes to infer mental state, and showed decreased accuracy in following line of sight when several visual distracters were present. Performance across tasks was not correlated for either group. Findings suggest that children with autism are less inclined to prioritize and select eyes, particularly in visually-rich environments. Gaze-following deficits may lie at the level of selective attention, rather than cueing-a possibility that can be explored with more complex and ecologically valid tasks. Keywords Autism * Gaze-cueing * Social attention, Introduction Difficulties with social attention may be among the earliest, most salient, and specific features of autism (Mundy 1995; Swettenham et al. 1998; Zwaigenbaum et al. 2005). Gaze-following in naturalistic [...]

An anomaly of an anomaly: investigating the cortical electrophysiology of remote staring detection/Une anomalie d'anomalie : etude de l'electrophysiologie corticale de la detection du regard a distance/ Anomalia de una anomalia: investigando la electrofisiologia cortical de la deteccion de ser observado a distancia/ Eine anomalie einer anomalie: zur untersuchung der kortikalen elektrophysiologie beim nachweis des beobachtetwerdens (remote staring). If there is evidence of an overall effect of remote staring detection, then theoretically there should also be evidence of electrophysiological processing of this information in the brain. A series of three experiments examining the potential electrocortical correlates of remote staring detection are presented, followed by a fourth experiment to examine a potential artifact. The first experiment provided an initial exploration of this effect, finding primarily that 'remote staring detection' has no evident time-locked processing associated with it on its own but rather acts upon other processes occurring at the same time. The second experiment provided evidence that this effect is not related specifically to face processing but can impact on other forms of processing as well. The third experiment uncovered evidence of a potential artifact that could explain the 'remote staring effect,' which is verified in the final experiment. The overall results are discussed in light of an interesting and subtle psychophysics luminance effect that could potentially have an impact upon a wide variety of experiments that employ event-related measures of electrocortical processing. Keywords: remote staring detection, electroencephalography, global field power, psychophysics, luminance artifact S'il y a des elements de preuve d'un effet global de la detection du regard a distance, alors il devrait theoriquement y avoir d'autres preuves d'un processus electrophysiologique de traitement de cette information dans le cerveau. Une serie de 3 experimentations examinant les correlats electrocorticaux potentiels de la detection du regard a distance est presentee, suivie par une 4e experience pour examiner un artefact potentiel. La 1ere experience fournit une exploration initiale de cet effet, montrant d'abord que << la detection du regard a distance >> ne correspond pas de facon evidente a un processus reperable dans le temps mais agit plutot sur les processus se produisant au meme moment. La 2e experience fournit des preuves que cet effet n'est pas specifiquement en lien avec le processus de reconnaissance de visage mais peut avoir un impact sur d'autres processus. La 3e experience met en lumiere un potentiel artefact qui pourrait expliquer l'effet de << regard a distance >>, qui est verifie dans l'experimentation finale. Les resultats globaux sont discutes a la lumiere d'un subtil et interessant effet de luminance psychophysique qui pourrait potentiellement avoir un impact sur une large variete d'experimentations qui emploient des mesures relatives a des evenements de processus electrocorticaux. Si hay evidencia de un erecto general de poder detectar si alguien nos observa a distancia, teoricamente tambien deberia haber evidencia dei procesamiento electrofi siologico de dicha informacion en el cerebro. Presentamos una serie de 3 experimentos que examinaron posibles correlatos electrocorticales de la deteccion de ser observado a distancia (DOD), seguidos por un cuarto experimento para examinar un posible artefacto. El primer experimento fue una exploracion inicial de este erecto y encontro principalmente que DOD no esta asociado a un procesamiento sincronizado evidente, sino que actua sobre otros procesos que ocurren ai mismo tiempo. El segundo experimento proporciono evidencia de que este erecto no esta relacionado especificamente conel procesamiento de rostros, pero puede tener un impacto en otras formas de procesamiento. El tercer experimento mostro evidencia de un posible artefacto que podria explicar el efecto DOD, verificado en el experimento final. Discuto los resultados globales a la luz de un interesante y sutil erecto psicofisico de luminancia que podria tener un impacto en una amplia variedad de experimentos que emplean medidas relacionadas con los eventos de procesamiento electrocortical. Wenn sich ein Hinweis auf einen Gesamteffekt bei der Nachprufung des Remote Staring finden lasst, dann sollte es auch einen Hinweis auf die elektrophysiologische Informationsverarbeitung ira Gehirn geben. Eine Serie von drei Experimenten zur Uberprufung moglicher elektrophysiologischer Korrelate beim Nachweis des Remote Viewing wird vorgestellt, gefolgt von einem vierten zur Uberprufung eines moglichen Artefakts. Das erste Experiment stellte eine erste Uberprufung dieses Effekts dar, bei der sich hauptsachlich zeigte, dass der 'remote staring-Nachweis' offensichtlich keinen mit sich selbst verknupften, zeitlich gekoppelten Verarbeitungsprozess darstellt, sondem sich vielmehr auf andere Prozesse auswirkt, die gleichzeitig ablaufen. Das zweite Experiment ergab Hinweise darauf, dass sich dieser Effekt nieht spezifiseh auf die Gesichterverarbeitung auswirkt, sondem auch andere Verarbeitungsformen beeinflussen kann. Das dritte Experiment fand einen Hinweis auf ein mogliehes Artefakt, das den 'remote staring-Effekt' erklaren konnte, was im letzten Experiment bestatigt wurde. Die Gesamtergebnisse werden im Licht eines interessanten und subtilen psyehophysikalischen Luminanzeffektes diskutiert, der moglicherweise fur eine grossere Anzahl von Experimenten von Bedeutung sein konnte, die ereignisbezogene Messungen der elektrokortikalen Verarbeitung verwenden., Remote staring detection has been defined as '... the purported ability to detect when one is being watched or stared at by someone situated beyond the range of the conventional [...]

The effects of gaze-aversion on the cognitive performance and visual-spatial imagination are examined. Findings show that having eye-contact with another person interrupts imagination, but averting gaze does not, supporting the argument that gaze-aversion provides positive cognitive functions.

ABSTRACT. The authors quantitatively described gaze behavior of young (n = 10) and older (n = 10) adults during stair negotiation, which is information that is crucial for understanding the [...]

The direction of another person's gaze is difficult to ignore when presented at the center of attention. In 6 experiments, perception of unattended gaze was investigated. Participants made directional (left-right) judgments to gazing-face or pointing-hand targets, which were accompanied by a distractor face or hand. Processing of the distractor was assessed via congruency effects on target response times. Congruency effects were found from the direction of distractor hands but not from the direction of distractor gazes (Experiment 1). This pattern persisted even when distractor sizes were increased to compensate for their peripheral presentation (Experiments 2 and 5). In contrast, congruency effects were exerted by profile heads (Experiments 3 and 4). In Experiment 6, isolated eye region distractors produced no congruency effects, even when they were presented near the target. These results suggest that, unlike other facial information, gaze direction cannot be perceived outside the focus of attention. Keywords: gaze, face perception, attention

This study examined whether the well-documented adult tendency to perceive gaze aversion as a lying cue is also evident in children. In Experiment 1, 6-year-olds, 9-year-olds, and adults were shown video vignettes of speakers who either maintained or avoided eye contact while answering an interviewer's questions. Participants evaluated whether the speaker was telling the truth or lying on each trial. The results revealed that at both ages, children were more likely to attribute lying to speakers in the gaze aversion condition; however, the effect was significantly greater among 9-year-olds. Significant gender differences were also uncovered, with girls demonstrating strongest sensitivity to the gaze cue. Experiment 2 replicated the gender effect in 6-year-olds but found that when the speakers' verbal responses were removed, boys' use of the gaze cue increased and the gender difference disappeared. These findings indicate that at 6 years old, children interpret interpersonal gaze behavior as a socially informative cue. Furthermore, the growing appreciation of the stereotypic gaze behavior associated with lying and the reputed female advantage in gaze sensitivity may reflect differential processing of multimodal communication. Keywords: gaze perception, mental state attribution, nonverbal deception cues, social cognition, sex differences

The authors examined observers steering through a series of obstacles to determine the role of active gaze in shaping locomotor trajectories. Participants sat on a bicycle trainer integrated with a large field-of-view simulator and steered through a series of slalom gates. Steering behavior was determined by examining the passing distance through gates and the smoothness of trajectory. Gaze monitoring revealed which slalom targets were fixated and for how long. Participants tended to track the most immediate gate until it was about 1.5 s away, at which point gaze switched to the next slalom gate. To probe this gaze pattern, the authors then introduced a number of experimental conditions that placed spatial or temporal constraints on where participants could look and when. These manipulations resulted in systematic steering errors when observers were forced to use unnatural looking patterns, but errors were reduced when peripheral monitoring of obstacles was allowed. A steering model based on active gaze sampling is proposed, informed by the experimental conditions and consistent with observations in free-gaze experiments and with recommendations from real-world high-speed steering. Keywords: locomotion, steering, gaze, eye movements, active vision

Using a gaze-following task, the authors assessed whether self-experience with the view-obstructing properties of blindfolds influenced infants' understanding of this effect in others. In Experiment 1, 12-month-olds provided with blindfold self-experience behaved as though they understood that a person wearing a blindfold cannot see. When a blindfolded adult turned to face an object, these infants gaze followed significantly less than control infants who had either (a) seen and felt the blindfold but whose view had not been obstructed by it or (b) experienced a windowed blindfold through which they could see. In Experiment 2, 18-month-olds experienced either (a) a trick blindfold that looked opaque but could be seen through, (b) an opaque blindfold, or (c) baseline familiarization. Infants receiving trick-blindfold experience now followed a blindfolded adult's gaze significantly more than controls. The authors propose 3 mechanisms underlying infants' capacity to use self-experience as a framework for understanding the visual perception of others. Keywords: social cognition, gaze following, training experience, theory of mind, intention

The contradiction that exits between clinical reports of impaired gaze following in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) on the one hand and studies failing to reproduce this effect in the laboratory on the other is studied. It is concluded that impaired gaze following in ASDs is related to impaired emotion processing.

A study to test whether psychopathic traits are associated with reduced attention to the eye region of other people's faces is conducted. It is seen that attention to other people's eyes is reduced in young people with high psychopathic traits which accounts for their problems with fear recognition.

Orienting to an uninformative peripheral cue is characterized by a brief facilitation followed by a long-lasting inhibition once attention is removed from the cued location. Although central gaze cues cause reflexive orienting, the inhibitory effect that is relatively ubiquitous following exogenous orienting to uninformative peripheral cues has been relatively rare. We hypothesized that IOR might be seen following gaze-induced orienting if attention were effectively returned to centre by a return gaze of return flash. The time-course of gaze-directed orienting was measured by varying the interval between the gaze cue and a peripheral target requiring an orientation discrimination (permitting measurement of the Simon effect). Significant facilitation was observed at all but the longest SOA tested, 2,880 ms, by which time the facilitation had disappeared with no evidence of IOR. Gaze-induced cuing (which was unaffected by return cue condition) interacted with the Simon effect, decreasing it at the gazed-at location, a pattern that is not seen with more typical endogenous and exogenous cuing.

Older children, but not younger children, were found to look away more from the face of an interlocutor when answering difficult as opposed to easy questions. Similar results were found in earlier work with adults, who often avert their gaze during cognitively difficult tasks (A. M. Glenberg, J. L. Schroeder, & D. A. Robertson, 1998). Twenty-five 8-year-olds and 26 5-year-olds answered verbal reasoning and arithmetic questions of varying difficulty. The older children increased gaze aversion from the face of the adult questioner in response to both difficult verbal reasoning questions and difficult arithmetic questions. In contrast, younger children (5-year-olds) responded less consistently to cognitive difficulty. It is concluded that adultlike patterns of gaze aversion in response to cognitive difficulty are certainly acquired by 8 years of age. The implications of appropriate gaze aversion for children's management of cognitive processing resources are considered.

Our everyday environment is filled with irrelevant and potentially distracting information. Recent research has shown that during retrieval people tend to look away from distraction or close their eyes and that averting one's gaze benefits retrieval. We examined the extent to which there are age-related differences in the benefits of gaze aversion and whether the benefits of gaze aversion extend to encoding. Relative to looking at complex stimuli, closing the eyes and looking at simple stimuli produced reliable improvements in memory for both younger and older adults at both encoding and retrieval. Contrary to the expectation that older adults have general inhibitory deficits, the benefits of gaze aversion were similar for younger and older adults at both encoding and retrieval. These results are consistent with the view that older adults have spared inhibitory functioning for distraction appearing in fixed locations.

In his essay on 'The Sexual Aberrations' found in his work Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality of 1905, Freud discusses in some detail the relationship between perversion and [...]

Three experiments were used to study the interaction between head orientation, gaze direction, and the perception of another person's direction of social attention. Results indicate that head and gaze cues are mutually influential in determining the focus of social attention.

The ability of 3 capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) to use experimenter-given cues to solve an object-choice task was assessed. The monkeys learned to use explicit gestural and postural cues and then progressed to using eye-gaze-only cues to solve the task, that is, to choose the baited 1 of 2 objects and thus obtain a food reward. Increasing cue-stimulus distance and introducing movement of the eyes impeded the establishment of effective eye-gaze reading. One monkey showed positive but imperfect transfer of use of eye gaze when a novel experimenter presented the cue. When head and eye orientation cues were presented simultaneously and in conflict, the monkeys showed greater responsiveness to head orientation cues. The results show that capuchin monkeys can learn to use eye gaze as a discriminative cue, but there was no evidence for any underlying awareness of eye gaze as a cue to direction of attention.

This article focuses on the allusions to Orpheus and Pygmalion in Petrarch's 'Rime sparse.' Topics discussed include the poet's gaze and desire for aesthetic pleasures, Petrarch's poetic techniques, and the artistic project of correspondence between art and life.

When people are asked moderately difficult questions, they often avert their gazes. We report five experiments in which we documented this phenomenon. They demonstrate that (1) the frequency of gaze aversion is related to the difficulty of cognitive processing, (2) this behavior cannot be due solely to demand characteristics or embarrassment, and (3) the behavior is functional: Averting the gaze improves performance. We speculate that averting the gaze helps people to disengage from environmental stimulation and thereby enhances the efficiency of cognitive processing directed by nonenvironmental stimulation.

In novelist Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein,' Victor, the maker of the monster, is overwhelmingling horrified by what he makes. Since he was not afraid of the grotesque, having looked at many decomposed corpses, it is not clear why he was so horrified by the awakening creature. The question indicates some of the genius of the novel and serves to throw light on a truth in human nature. Seeing and self-perception are the reason for the sudden insight.

The manual pointing of 2 signing chimpanzees, Moja and Tatu, was examined in 2 experiments. Experiment 1 investigated eye-gaze direction, hand use, and hand shape while pointing. Both chimpanzees obtained the attention of a human before pointing toward an unreachable object. During 100 trials, the chimpanzees alternated their eye gaze between the object and the human while pointing. Moja's points were left-hand biased, and Tatu showed no lateral hand bias. Both indexical and whole hand points were recorded. Experiment 2 tested the chimpanzees' ability to point accurately toward objects in close proximity to each other. Humans were able to reliably determine the locations toward which the chimpanzees pointed. Both chimpanzees showed left-hand biases, and a higher proportion of indexical points were observed than in Experiment 1. These results are compared and contrasted with recent hypotheses pertaining to the topography of chimpanzee pointing and the role of eye gaze in deictic interactions.

The current experiment tested the aiming accuracy of the eye for targets at nine different positions and of two different sizes. The left eye was tracked to record the line of gaze with an infrared eye-monitoring device. For each subject, horizontal shift, vertical shift, standard deviations of the X and Y coordinates, and 95th percentile of the horizontal and vertical shifts from the nine target centers were calculated to indicate the precision, accuracy, and possible design limits of the gaze points. Analysis showed that the target's position had a strong effect on the vertical shift, standard deviations of the Y coordinate, and 95th percentile of the vertical shift. The effect of target size was not significant on any of the dependent measures. The research findings have important implications for the redesign of the gaze-pointing device. Visual targets appearing below the horizontal line of sight should be larger than those above. based on the 95th percentile of the horizontal and vertical shifts, targets should be approximately 2.0 [degrees] wide and 2.4 [degrees] long above or coinciding with the horizontal line of gaze and 2.6 [degrees] wide and 3.9 [degrees] (cm) long below the horizontal line of gaze.

The current experiment examined the speed-accuracy trade-off of saccadic movement between two targets. Ten subjects looked alternately at two targets as fast and as accurately as possible for 2 min. under different conditions of target size, distance between targets, and direction of eye movement. Saccadic movement of the left eye was tracked and recorded with an infrared eye monitoring device to compute the starting position, ending position, and duration of each saccadic movement. Eye-movement time was significantly related to target size and distance between targets, but the speed-accuracy trade-off was significantly different from that predicted by Fitts' Law. Reaction time was not significantly changed by the direction of eye movement.

Gaze and attention direction provide important sources of social information for primates. Behavioral studies show that chimpanzees spontaneously follow human gaze direction. By contrast, non-ape species such as macaques fail to follow gaze cues. The authors investigated the reactions of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to attention cues of conspecifics. Two subjects were presented with videotaped images of a stimulus monkey with its attention directed to 1 of 2 identical objects. Analysis of eye movements revealed that both subjects inspected the target (object or position attended by the stimulus monkey) more often than the distractor (non-attended object or position). These results provide evidence that rhesus monkeys follow gaze and use the attention cues of other monkeys to orient their own attention to objects.

The publication of Laura Mulvey's 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema' in 1978 initiated a dialogue about the function of the 'gaze' that has subsequently moved beyond the boundaries of film [...]

In this study, one particular form of nonverbal behavior - patient-directed gaze - was examined in relation to the general practitioner's performance in psychosocial care. Data were available from a random sample of 337 videotaped consultations and accompanying questionnaires from both general practitioner and patient. The relevance of general practitioners' gaze in psychosocial care was demonstrated in several ways: (1) general practitioners' gaze was associated with affective verbal behavior and with instrumental behavior on psychosocial topics; (2) general practitioners' gaze was related to patients' share of talking and the number of health problems presented, especially as regards psychological and social health problems; (3) in consultations with a relatively high degree of patient-directed gaze, general practitioners were found to be more aware of patients' psychosocial history and were better at identifying patients suffering mental distress. Patient-directed gaze appears to be a useful technique, both for decoding people's mental problems and for showing interest in the patient's story. This may encourage the patient to talk about worries that would otherwise remain concealed. In medical education, nonverbal techniques should be taught as distinct from verbal communication strategies.

32 shy and 32 nonshy women were selected from a population of Japanese junior college students on the basis of their responses to the Trait Shyness Scale. This study manipulated shyness (shy and nonshy), interviewers' gaze (high amount of gaze and low amount of gaze), and interviewers' sex in a 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design. Subjects were randomly assigned to eight groups and interviewed by one of two male or two female confederates. Two trained judges recorded duration of gaze and speech through a one-way mirror and watching videotaped records. Analysis showed that for the interviewer in the high gaze condition the self-reported shy women gazed less while speaking than the nonshy women.

Electrooculogram (EOG) which is used for measuring eye movement has not been utilised to gauge gaze behaviour because of its lack of stability. The study overcomes this shortcoming by using an on-line computer system to gauge driver gaze behaviour in 3 major traffic-related problem areas: digital display use; rear-view-mirror use and speedometer use. The results show that frequency and timing of blinks indicates visual behaviour.

Summary. - 20 extraverts and 20 introverts were selected from a population of college students on the basis of their responses to the Maudsley Personality Inventory. These 40 young women were interviewed by one confederate of each sex. Six trained judges recorded visual and speech behavior by viewing through a one-way mirror and watching videotaped records. Analysis showed that extraverted women engaged in longer gazing than the introverted ones. The extraverted women gazed longer during listening than did introverted women. The proportion of time spent in gazing while speaking was not associated with extraversion. Also, women spent a greater proportion of time looking at a female interviewer than at a male interviewer.

A study was conducted to examine the anxiety-induced changes in movement and gaze behavior in novices on a changing wall. Findings reveal the decrease in search rate provides evidence for a decrease in processing efficiency as anxiety increases.