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Main Conclusion: Infection by apple latent spherical virus (ALSV) vectors that promote the expression of Arabidopsis thaliana FLOWERING LOCUS T ( AtFT ) or Gentiana triflora GtFT s accelerates flowering in gentian and lisianthus plants. Apple latent spherical virus (ALSV) has isometric virus particles (25 nm in diameter) that contain two ssRNA species (RNA1 and RNA2) and three capsid proteins (Vp25, Vp20, and Vp24). ALSV vectors are used for foreign gene expression and virus-induced gene silencing in a broad range of plant species. Here, we report the infection by ALSV vectors that express FLOWERING LOCUS T (AtFT) from Arabidopsis thaliana or its homolog GtFT1 from Gentiana triflora in three gentian cultivars ('Iwate Yume Aoi' [early flowering], 'Iwate' [medium flowering], and 'Alta' [late flowering]), and two lisianthus cultivars ('Newlination Pink ver. 2' and 'Torukogikyou daburu mikkusu') promotes flowering within 90 days post-inoculation using particle bombardment. Additionally, seedlings from the progeny of the early-flowering plants were tested by tissue blot hybridization, and the results showed that ALSV was not transmitted to the next generation. The promotion of flowering in the family Gentianaceae by ALSV vectors shortened the juvenile phase from 1-3 years to 3-5 months, and thus, it could be considered as a new plant breeding technique in ornamental gentian and lisianthus plants.

Somatic embryogenesis is, for the main floricultural crops, a promising system for commercial scale-up, providing cloned material to be traded as seedlings. Somatic embryos, having the contemporary presence of root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem, can be readily acclimatized. For Lisianthus it is possible to induce embryogenic callus from leaf fragments of selected genotypes and to obtain embryos either in agarized substrate or in liquid suspension culture. The production of somatic embryos in liquid medium is high and can be modulated in order to synchronize the cycle and the size of the neoformed structures. The possibility to use the liquid substrate with high propagation rates reduces labor costs and could support the costs of eventual automation. In this paper we report a stepwise protocol for somatic embryogenesis in the species Eustoma russellianum.

Hoppea fastigiata, an annual medicinal herb belonging to the Gentianaceae, is mostly found in South Asian countries, and is used by local tribes for various brain-related ailments. The genus possesses a unique class of compounds, xanthones, which are known for their potential against Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Limited availability and the potential pharmacological significance of the plants has led to the establishment of in vitro cultures of H. fastigiata and study of its neuroprotective principles. In vitro plantlets were established from the apical meristem of the plant in Murashige and Skoog medium with a combination of the phytohormones 6-benzylaminopurine (1 mg/L) and kinetin (0.1 mg/L), which was found to be efficacious with a growth index of 0.9 ± 0.01 after 30 days. Four different solvent extracts of in vitro cultures were evaluated for acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and monoamine oxidase A and B (MAO-A and MAO-B) inhibitory activities, amongst which the ethanolic extract showed the lowest IC50 value in all the assays. Three major compounds were isolated from the ethanolic extract and structurally confirmed as 1,5,7-trihydroxy-3-methoxyxanthone (1), 1,5-dihydroxy-3,7-dimethoxyxanthone (2) and 1,3,5-trihydroxy-8-methoxyxanthone (3). Compound 3 showed the strongest AChE inhibitory activity with mixed-type inhibition. Compounds 1 and 2 also showed promising AChE inhibitory properties with mixed and non-competitive types of inhibition, respectively. Compounds 1 and 2 showed inhibition of MAO-A (mixed and competitive, respectively) and compounds 2 and 3 showed inhibition of MAO-B (competitive and mixed, respectively). Extracts and isolated compounds showed good antioxidant capacities. The ethanolic extract and compound 2 showed the strongest antioxidant activities among the other solvent extracts and compounds, respectively.

The distribution information of Lomatogonium rotatum. was collected by interview investigation and field survey, and 55 related environmental factors were collected, the habitat suitability study was conducted based on geographic information system (GIS) and maximum entropy model. The AUCs of ROC curve were both above 0.99, indicating that the predictive results with the maximum model were highly precise. The results showed that 13 major environmental factors have obvious influence on ecology suitability distributions of L. rotatum, including month average temperature of February et al., the suitable distribution areas are mainly concentrated in the east-central of Inner Mongolia, including Hexigten banner, Duolun county, Zhenglan banner et al., The zoning results basically coincide with the genuine producing areas, and further afford new suitable distribution areas, which can provide reference for L. rotatum's wild nursery and the siting of introduction and cultivation.

Phenolic acids are an important group of plant secondary metabolites with various, valuable therapeutic properties. Apart from plants growing in the open air, tissue cultures can be an alternative source of the secondary metabolites. The yield of their accumulation in in vitro cultures can be increased by different methods, including culture medium supplementation with precursors, elicitors and changing the standard amounts of the medium components. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the precursor (L-phenylalanine), the elicitor (methyl jasmonate) and a higher sucrose concentration on the phenolic acids accumulation in the agitated shoot cultures of Exacum affine Balf. f. ex Regel (Gentianaceae). Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the phenolic acids in methanolic extracts from the biomass were conducted by applying the HPLC method. Fourteen phenolic acids and cinnamic acid were found in all samples. The total content of free phenolic acids increased from approximately 0.242% to 0.635% (2.6-fold) and the total content of the whole phenolic acids (free and bound) - from 0.712% to 1.160% (1.6-fold). The studies show that the best variant for the accumulation of most of the identified phenolic acids contained 6% of sucrose (double the standard amount), L-phenylalanine 1.6 gL(-1) of medium and methyl jasmonate 100 μM. The analysis of the results in the experiment presented here showed that it is possible to increase the accumulation of the phenolic acids in Exacum affine shoot cultures - by adding the precursor (L-phenylalanine), the elicitor (methyl jasmonate) and by increasing the sucrose concentration.

A rosette plant of Eustoma grandiflorum requires vernalization (exposure to a period of cold temperature) and long-day conditions to promote flowering, while prolonged cold or cool temperatures in post-vernalization periods delay flowering. This study aimed to investigate the effect of growth conditions on flowering regulation in Eustoma. In Arabidopsis, vernalization suppresses a floral repressor gene, FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) and upregulates floral promoter genes, such as SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1) and FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT). We identified and characterized the Eustoma homologs of these genes. In contrast to Arabidopsis FLC, Eustoma grandiflorum FLC-like (EgFLCL) expression was upregulated by cold temperature and downregulated by subsequent warm temperature exposure. The expression of Eustoma grandiflorum SOC1-like (EgSOC1L) and FT-like (EgFTL) genes was not significantly induced during vernalization, but their transcripts increased during a warm post-vernalization period in the long days. Vernalized plants grown under cool post-vernalization temperatures exhibited higher EgFLCL expression, lower EgSOC1L and EgFTL expression and flowered later than those grown under warm temperatures. Overexpression of EgFLCL cDNA repressed flowering in transgenic Arabidopsis, whereas overexpression of EgSOC1L or EgFTL cDNA promoted flowering. Our results suggest that flowering regulation by vernalization in Eustoma differs from the paradigm developed for Arabidopsis. EgFLCL is regulated by temperature and may be involved in floral repression during cold and cool seasons. Warm- and long-day conditions following vernalization are required to induce two putative floral promoters, EgSOC1L and EgFTL, effectively., (Copyright © Physiologia Plantarum 2011.)

Chelonanthus alatus is a bat-pollinated, pioneer Gentianaceae that clusters in patches where still-standing, dried-out stems are interspersed among live individuals. Flowers bear circum-floral nectaries (CFNs) that are attractive to ants, and seed dispersal is both barochorous and anemochorous. Although, in this study, live individuals never sheltered ant colonies, dried-out hollow stems--that can remain standing for 2 years--did. Workers from species nesting in dried-out stems as well as from ground-nesting species exploited the CFNs of live C. alatus individuals in the same patches during the daytime, but were absent at night (when bat pollination occurs) on 60.5% of the plants. By visiting the CFNs, the ants indirectly protect the flowers--but not the plant foliage--from herbivorous insects. We show that this protection is provided mostly by species nesting in dried-out stems, predominantly Pseudomyrmex gracilis. That dried-out stems remain standing for years and are regularly replaced results in an opportunistic, but stable association where colonies are sheltered by one generation of dead C. alatus while the live individuals nearby, belonging to the next generation, provide them with nectar; in turn, the ants protect their flowers from herbivores. We suggest that the investment in wood by C. alatus individuals permitting still-standing, dried-out stems to shelter ant colonies constitutes an extended phenotype because foraging workers protect the flowers of live individuals in the same patch. Also, through this process these dried-out stems indirectly favor the reproduction (and so the fitness) of the next generation including both their own offspring and that of their siblings, all adding up to a potential case of inclusive fitness in plants.

Delayed selfing could provide ovules with an opportunity to be fertilized as a means of "pollination assurance" before the flowers wilt. It could, thus, be regarded as an adaptation to unpredictable pollinator environments. Within the alpine biennial Gentianopsis paludosa, the showy flowers and herkogamy at the early stage of a flower's life cycle may favor outcrossing. As the flower ages, anthers contact the central stigma due to the elongation of all filaments, resulting in autonomous selfing. Flower visitors are extremely rare in a high altitude population; and examination of the mating system indicates that G. paludosa is self-pollinated under natural conditions in this population. While at the lower altitude, the bumblebee visitation rate is relatively high but possibly unreliable. Stigma receptivity is the highest on the third day of anthesis, and decreases thereafter. Pollen viability is the highest when flowers open, and gradually decreases later. Self-pollination of G. paludosa occurs at the late stage of a flower's lifecycle when stigma receptivity and pollen viability have both decreased, suggesting delayed selfing and assurance of seed production. This delayed selfing could assure seed production under the constraints of pollinator scarcity, but ensure outcrossing when pollinators were available. Such a flexible pollination mechanism is highly adaptive in the alpine environment of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

Lisianthus [Eustoma grandiflorum (Raf.) Shinn] is a popular cut flower crop throughout the world, and the demand for this plant for cut flowers and potted plants has been increasing worldwide. Recent advances in genetic engineering have enabled the transformation and regeneration of plants to become a powerful tool for improvement of lisianthus. We have established a highly efficient plant regeneration system and Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation of E. grandiflorum. The greatest shoot regeneration frequency and number of shoot buds per explant are observed on media supplemented with 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP) and alpha-Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). We report an efficient plant regeneration system using leaf explants via organogenesis with high efficiency of transgenic plants (15%) in culture of 11 weeks' duration. Further ectopic expression of two MADS box genes, LMADS1-M from lily (Lilium longiflorum) and OMADS1 from orchid (Oncidium Gower Ramsey), was performed in E. grandiflorum. Conversion of second whorl petals into sepal-like structures and alteration of third whorl stamen formation were observed in the transgenic E. grandiflorum plants ectopically expressing 35S::LMADS1-M. 35S::OMADS1 transgenic E. grandiflorum plants flowered significantly earlier than non-transgenic plants. This is the first report on the ectopic expression of two MADS box genes in E. grandiflorum using a simple and highly efficient gene transfer protocol. Our results reveal the potential for floral modification in E. grandiflorum through genetic transformation.

Objective: To establish HPLC fingerprint of Gentiana macrophylla, which was expected to be standards of quality control and identification of the Chinese crude drug., Methods: The HPLC method was used, chromatography conditions were Shimadzu C18 (150 mm x 4.6 mm, 5 microm) column with gradient mobile phase of methanol-0.4% Phosphoric acid, UV detection wavelength was at 230 nm and the column temperature was at 25 degrees C with the flow rate of 1.0 ml/min., Results: 5 peaks were identified as the characteristic fingerprints of Gentiana macrophylla and the fingerprints of the 14 samples had high similarities. The similarities of disqualified and fake medicinal materials were low., Conclusion: This HPLC fingerprint of Gentiana macrophylla can be used as a standard of quality control and identification of the Chinese crude drug.

A highly efficient two stage protocol was developed for induction of multiple shoots from single node in vitro shoot tip explants of Decalepis hamiltonii. It was found that phloroglucinol (PG) had synergistic effect on shoot multiplication when added with N6-benzyladenine and gibberellic acid. This protocol uses PG for both multiple shoot induction from nodal explants, elongation of primary shoots and initiation of adventitious shoot formation from primary shoots, which was more in presence of triacontanol (TRIA). Maximum number of shoots per culture was observed on the medium containing N6-benzyladenine (1.1 microM; BA), GA3 (5.8 microM) and PG (800 microM). Sub-culturing of the shoots onto MS medium containing optimum concentration of BA (5.6 microM), PG (200 microM) and TRIA (0.011 microM) produced elongated shoots along with secondary shoot formation. The long shoots were rooted on alpha-naphthalene acetic acid (5.38 microM; NAA) and PG (400 microM) containing medium. The rooted plantlets were hardened and their field survival rate was 80-90%.

The transition from the vegetative rosette stage to the reproductive growth stage (bolting) in the rosette plant Eustoma grandiflorum has a strict requirement for vernalization, a treatment that causes oxidative stress. Since we have shown that reduced glutathione (GSH) and its biosynthesis are associated with bolting in another rosette plant Arabidopsis thaliana, we here investigated whether a similar mechanism governs the vernalization-induced bolting of E. grandiflorum. Addition of GSH or its precursor cysteine, instead of vernalization, induced bolting but other thiols, dithiothreitol and 2-mercaptoethanol, did not. The inductive effect of vernalization on bolting was nullified by addition of buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), an inhibitor of GSH synthesis, without decreasing the plant growth rate. BSO-mediated inhibition of bolting was reversed by addition of GSH but not by cysteine. These indicate that vernalization-induced bolting involves GSH biosynthesis and is specifically regulated by GSH. Plant GSH increased during the early vernalization period along with the activity of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase that catalyzes the first step of GSH biosynthesis, although there was little change in amounts of GSH precursor thiols, cysteine and gamma-glutamylcysteine. These findings strongly suggest that vernalization stimulates GSH synthesis and synthesized GSH specifically determines the bolting time of E. grandiflorum.

Eustoma grandiflorum Shinn requires vernalization for the induction of stem elongation and flowering. To investigate the role of gibberellins (GAs) in vernalization, the expression levels of genes encoding enzymes of GA biosynthesis, copalyl diphosphate synthetase, GA 20-oxidase and GA 3 beta-hydroxylase, were examined using two culitvars that show different responses to vernalization. The three genes were induced in a vernalization- and a cultivar-dependent manner. EgSPY, a putative negative regulator of GA signal transduction, was also induced during the vernalization period. The results suggest that the expression of the genes encoding GAs biosynthesis is regulated by vernalization. We postulate that EgSPY functions as a negative regulator of GA signal transduction during vernalization, inhibiting adventitious shoot elongation during vernalization.