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In the commercial egg industry, avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) can lead to significant economic loss. The Poulvac E. coli vaccine (PECV) is a commercially available attenuated live vaccine commonly applied via spray or drinking water to protect against losses associated with colibacillosis. The PECV has not been tested in layer hatching eggs using in ovo injection. Therefore, the purpose of this experiment was to determine the effects of injecting 50 μL of different doses of the PECV into Hy-Line W-36-layer hatching eggs on the hatchability and quality characteristics of hatchlings. At 18 d of incubation (DOI), treatments included 1 noninjected and 1 diluent-injected control. Furthermore, PECV treatments included a full dose (4.4 × 10 8 E. coli CFU) or serial dilutions of the full dose to produce 4.4 × 10 6 , 4.4 × 10 4 , or 4.4 × 10 2 CFU doses of E. coli. In ovo injections targeted the amnion. Percent hatchability of live embryonated eggs (HI), percent residue eggs, hatchling mortality, and female chick whole and yolk-free BW, relative yolk sac weight, and body length were among the variables examined. Treatment significantly (P < 0.0001) affected HI, with HI being highest in the control groups (97.3% in the noninjected and 94.2% in the diluent-injected), and with HI values being 89.0, 88.9, 84.4, and 71.2% in the 4.4 × 10 2 , 4.4 × 10 4 , 4.4 × 10 6 , and 4.4 × 10 8 CFU E. coli dose treatments, respectively. The percentage of live embryos that did not complete hatch but that pipped internally (P = 0.024) or externally (P < 0.0001) were significantly affected by treatment, with percentages being highest in the 4.4 × 10 8 CFU treatment. Female chick body length was significantly (P < 0.0001) affected by treatment and was longer in both control groups and in the 1 × 10 2 CFU E. coli treatment in comparison to all other treatments. Yolk-free female chick BW was significantly (P = 0.034) affected by treatment and was lower in the 4.4 × 10 6 CFU and 4.4 × 10 8 CFU treatments when compared to the diluent-injected control group. An increase in the E. coli concentration administered in the amnion of embryonated layer hatching eggs at 18 DOI decreased hatch success and female chick yolk-free BW and body length., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The current commercial broiler embryo experiences a rapid metabolism and growth rate and may produce more heat than those of the past. Consequently, it may be beneficial to lower standard incubation temperature for commercial broiler hatching eggs. The purpose of this experiment was to determine if lowering incubation temperature at 12 d of incubation (DOI) would affect embryo temperature (ET) in embryonated Ross 708 broiler hatching eggs. From 0 to 12 DOI, eggs were incubated under standard conditions (37.50°C dry bulb, 29.76°C wet bulb). At 12 DOI, temperature transponders were aseptically placed on the inner air cell membrane to measure air cell temperature (ACT) as an estimate of ET in 120 eggs. The eggs were then randomly assigned to 4 separate still-air incubators, each containing 30 eggs. Two replicate incubators were maintained at a standard (STRT; 37.5°C) or low (LTRT; 35.6°C) temperature treatment between 12 and 21 DOI. A significant positive correlation existed between incubator air temperature (IAT) and ACT across temperature treatment and in the STRT. However, IAT was not significantly correlated with ACT in the LTRT. A significantly higher ACT was observed in the STRT than in the LTRT for 88% of the readings taken between 12 and 21 DOI. Percent egg weight loss (PEWL) between 13 and 17 DOI did not significantly differ between temperature treatments. From 13 to 17 DOI, there was a significant positive correlation between PEWL and ACT in the STRT, however, no significant correlation occurred between PEWL and ACT in the LTRT. Percent hatch of fertile eggs containing live embryos at 12 DOI was 93.3% in the STRT and 100% in the LTRT. However, time of hatch occurred 14 to 19 h later and hatchling BW was lower in the LTRT than in the STRT. Although lowering IAT at 12 DOI may improve hatchability, an associated delay in hatch and a decrease in hatchling BW may not be commercially acceptable., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Effects of the in ovo injection of various levels of L-ascorbic acid (L-AA) on the performance and corneal erosion incidence in Ross 708 broilers exposed to 50 parts per million (ppm) of atmospheric ammonia (NH 3 ) after hatch were determined. A total of 1440 Ross 708 broiler embryos were randomly assigned to 4 treatments: non-injected (control), 0.85% sterile saline-injected (control), or saline containing 12 or 25 mg of L-AA. At hatch, 12 male chicks were randomly assigned to each of 48 battery cages with 12 replicate cages randomly assigned to each treatment group. All birds were exposed to 50 ppm of NH 3 for 35 d and the concentration of NH 3 in the battery cage house was recorded every 20 s. Mortality was determined daily, and mean body weight (BW), BW gain (BWG), average daily BW gain (ADG), and feed intake, as well as feed conversion ratio (FCR), were determined weekly. From 0 to 35 d of post-hatch age (doa), six birds from each cage were selected and sampled for eye erosion scoring. Incidences of corneal erosion were significantly higher at 21 and 28 doa in comparison to those at 14 and 35 doa, and at 21 doa, birds in the saline-injected group exhibited a higher incidence of corneal erosion compared to all other treatment groups. The in ovo injection of 12 mg of L-AA increased BWG ( p = 0.043) and ADG ( p = 0.041), and decreased FCR ( p = 0.043) from 0 to 28 doa in comparison to saline-injected controls. In conclusion the in ovo administration of 12 mg of L-AA may have the potential to improve the live performance of broilers chronically exposed to high aerial NH 3 concentrations, but further study is needed to determine the physiological and immunological factors that may contribute to this improvement.

Few studies have addressed the effects of package material in the absence of light on contributions to fluid milk flavor. The objective of this study was to compare the sensory and chemical properties of fluid milk packaged in paperboard cartons, low-density polyethylene, high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), and glass. Pasteurized (high temperature short time, 77°C for 25 s) skim and whole milk were filled (280 mL ± 10 mL) into paperboard cartons, low-density polyethylene, HDPE, PET, LLDPE, and glass (control). Milks were stored at 4°C in the dark and sampled at d 0, 5, 10, and 15. Descriptive analysis was applied to document sensory profiles at each time point, and volatile compounds were extracted and identified by solid-phase microextraction with gas chromatography mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-olfactometry. Tetrad tests with consumers were conducted at d 10. Both skim and whole milks packaged in cartons had noticeable paperboard flavor by d 5 and higher levels of hexanal than skim and whole milks in other package types at d 5. Skim milks packaged in paperboard cartons and LLDPE had distinct refrigerator/stale flavor compared with milks in the other package types, concurrent with increased levels of refrigerator/package-related compounds including styrene, acetophenone and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol. Milks packaged in glass, PET and HDPE were not distinguished by consumers at d 10 post-processing. Package type influences fluid milk flavor, and these effects are greater in skim milk compared with whole milk. Paperboard cartons do not preserve milk freshness, as well as PET, HDPE, or glass, due to flavor migration and scalping. Glass remains an ideal barrier to preserve fluid milk flavor, but in the absence of light, HDPE and PET provide additional benefits while also maintaining fluid milk flavor., (The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Effects of the dietary and in ovo administration of L-ascorbic acid (L-AA) on the performance, plasma nitric oxide, and eye L-AA concentrations of Ross 708 broilers were investigated. At 17 days of incubation, live embryonated hatching eggs were randomly assigned to a non-injected or sham-injected (100 μL of saline) control group, or a group injected with either 12 or 25 mg of L-AA suspended in 100 μL of saline. Chicks received a commercial diet with or without 200 mg/kg of supplemental L-AA and were randomly assigned to each of 6 replicate floor pens in each in ovo injection-dietary treatment combination. Weekly live performance variables through 14 days of post hatch age (doa) and the eye weights in both sexes at 0, 7, and 14 doa were determined. At 0 and 14 doa, plasma nitric oxide levels and eye L-AA concentrations of one bird of each sex in each pen were determined. Dietary supplemental L-AA decreased feed intake and growth between 0 and 7 doa, but from 8 to 14 doa; all birds fed supplemental L-AA had a lower feed conversion ratio. At 14 doa, male chicks had higher eye L-AA concentrations and lower plasma nitric oxide levels when treated in ovo with 12 mg of L-AA. In conclusion, dietary L-AA may be used to improve feed conversion in the second week of broiler post hatch growth. However, the in ovo administration of 12 mg of L-AA can increase male eye L-AA concentrations and is effective in reducing their general inflammatory response.

The transmission of the ts-11 strain of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) vaccine (ts-11MGV) between incubated eggs and between hatchlings that was administrated via in ovo injection, and its subsequent effects on their posthatch performance were evaluated. Marek's disease diluent alone (sham-injected) or containing either 3.63 × 10 1 , 10 2 , 10 3 , or 10 4 cfu of ts-11MGV was manually in ovo-injected into the amnion on 18 days of incubation. Egg residue analysis, percentage incubational egg weight loss, hatchability of viable injected eggs, and hatchling body weight (BW) were assessed. Selected hatchlings from each treatment replicate group were swabbed in the choanal cleft for MG DNA detection. Female chick live performance was also assessed through 21 days of posthatch age. Unexposed control sentinel chicks were allocated to each treatment replicate group to assess horizontal transmission. Birds were later swabbed and bled respectively, for detection of MG DNA and IgM production at 21 days posthatch. In all birds, no MG DNA was detected and SPA tests for IgM were negative. Among all variables, only 0 to 21 day BW gain was significantly affected by treatment and was lower in the 3.63 × 10 4 ts-11 MGV treatment in comparison to all the other treatments. Because ts-11MGV does not exhibit vertical or horizontal transmission capabilities under commercial conditions, it may not be a good candidate for in ovo injection.

Conscious consumerism is growing, along with consumer demand for socially conscious dairy products or dairy alternatives. To successfully position dairy products (especially conventional dairy) in this changing marketplace, dairy producers and processors must understand how to strategically use both on- and off-package messaging aligned with consumer perceptions. However, consumer perception of attributes such as sustainable, natural, and healthy is complex, and varies between product categories as well as among products within a category. The objective of this study was to characterize consumer definitions of the terms "sustainable," "natural," and "healthy" as they pertain to dried dairy ingredients. To meet this objective, we conducted an online survey with 3 maximum difference scaling exercises to determine the importance of 63 label claims to consumer definitions of the terms sustainable, natural, and healthy. The role of priming with dried ingredient processing information on consumer perception of these terms was also explored. Within the dried dairy ingredients category, there is extensive cognitive overlap between the terms sustainable, natural, and healthy. Priming did not affect consumer definitions of any of these terms. Certification-related claims were considered among the least important claims for consumer definitions of sustainable, natural, and healthy, whereas claims that were simple to read and visualize were considered among the most important. Claims related to animal welfare and happiness or simple, minimal ingredients and processing were considered by consumers to be important for all 3 terms. For each of these terms, there was a cluster of consumers who defined the term primarily by simple ingredients and minimal processing, and another cluster who defined the term primarily by happy cows and conscious farming practices. The terms sustainable and healthy each had a third, unique consumer cluster. This third definition cluster defined sustainability primarily by environmental effects, whereas this cluster defined healthy primarily in fitness and nutrition terms. Age and to a lesser extent, gender, affected importance placed on these 3 terms and also affected definition of the term. Understanding these consumer definitions provides insight on how to formulate marketing and educational messaging to speak to each consumer segment., (Copyright © 2021 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Effects of the in ovo injection of organic microminerals (OM) (zinc, manganese, and copper) and posthatch holding time (HT) on the daily body temperature (bt) of broilers during grow out were determined. The hatching eggs from a Ross 708 breeder flock at 32 wk of age were incubated under standard commercial conditions. At 17 d of incubation, eggs were randomly allocated to 3 in ovo OM injection treatment (TRT) groups, and at 21 d of incubation, male hatchlings were randomly allocated to 2 posthatch HT treatment groups. Eggs were either not injected or were in ovo injected with diluent only or diluent containing the OM mixture. A 0-hour HT group had immediate access to water and feed, and a 24-hour HT (24HT) group contained birds that were kept in transport baskets in their pens without access to feed and water for 24 h before being released. Fifteen male birds were placed in each of 36 litter floor pens in a temperature-controlled facility. Approximately 2 birds in each of 6 replicate pens belonging to each TRT-HT combination had temperature transponders inserted subcutaneous in the mid-dorsal region of the neck. All birds were brooded under standard commercial conditions and had ad libitum access to feed and water after their respective HT. The bt of the same birds were determined daily at the same time each day beginning at hatch and ending on 39 d of posthatch age (AGE). There were no significant main or interactive effects involving TRT or HT for bt. However, there was a significant (P ≤ 0.0001) main effect because of AGE. A general increase in bt occurred during the 39 d grow out period. At hatch, bt was 40.54 ± 0.056°C and at AGE 39 was 41.46 ± 0.055°C. Under standard brooding conditions, a general increase in bt occurred in the Ross 708 broilers. However, these birds did not exhibit a significant bt response to TRT or a 24HT before placement., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Plant-based dairy alternative beverage sales have increased in recent years. Plant-based dairy alternatives often advertise on a platform of sustainability and environmental commitment. To successfully position and market dairy products in this competitive environment, dairy companies must understand the consumer definition of and importance placed on sustainability, as well as communicate sustainability information effectively. The objective of this study was to characterize consumer perception of the sustainability of milk and dried dairy ingredients and their respective plant-based alternatives. Focus groups and 2 online surveys were conducted. In the first survey, maximum difference scaling was used to rank the importance of specific dairy product attributes to sustainability, along with an exercise in which respondents selected whether a fluid milk or protein powder product was sustainable. A follow-up survey included 2 exercises in which respondents selected whether generic dairy products or dried dairy ingredients were sustainable, natural, healthy, trustworthy, or ethical. Over half of dairy product consumers reported that they looked for sustainability-related information. Consumers who purchased both plant-based dairy alternative and dairy products placed a higher self-reported importance on sustainability than those who purchased dairy products only. Focus group and survey maximum difference scaling results identified 5 key attributes for sustainability: minimal carbon footprint/greenhouse gas emissions, few/no preservatives, animal happiness and welfare, and simple/minimal ingredients. Plant-based dairy alternatives followed by fluid milk and protein powders were considered more sustainable than dairy products, but package type and organic status also played a role in consumer sustainability perception. Product labels were the most common source of sustainability information, although consumers also sought information on websites affiliated and unaffiliated with dairy companies. There was cognitive overlap among the terms sustainable, natural, healthy, ethical, and trustworthy as they relate to dairy products, but consumers used the terms distinctly. Consumers perceived differences in these terms between general categories of dairy as well as among products in a specific dairy category. Dairy companies may be able to differentiate themselves by helping consumers make these choices by simplifying sustainability-related messaging and by maintaining open, transparent communication regarding sustainability., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Effects of dietary Original XPC (XPC) on 17 selected blood variables in commercial layer pullets challenged with the virulent, low-passage R strain of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (R low MG) were investigated. Hy-Line W-36 pullets sourced from M. gallisepticum-clean layer breeders were fed a basal diet with XPC (1.25 kg/metric ton) or without from hatch until 12 wk of age (woa). At 8 and 10 woa, half of the birds in each dietary treatment were challenged with R low MG. Blood samples were taken immediately before the initial R low MG challenge at 8 woa and again at 12 woa (4 wk after challenge). At 8 woa, blood pH was lower and glucose concentration was higher in the preassigned challenge treatment groups. At 12 woa, the concentration of oxygen dissolved in the blood was significantly lower in the R low MG-challenged group than the unchallenged group of birds regardless of dietary treatment. The R low MG challenge significantly increased blood carbon dioxide partial pressure, calcium, sodium, anion gap, osmolality, glucose, and corticosterone levels but significantly decreased blood oxygen partial pressure, oxyhemoglobin concentration, concentration of oxygen dissolved in the blood, chloride, and pH levels. Because blood pH and glucose concentration at 8 woa were examined before challenge, their baseline values were biased with respect to challenge treatment before treatment was applied. However, the lack of a significant main effect due to diet at 8 woa for blood pH and glucose concentration, along with the other 15 blood variables, indicate that the baseline data with respect to dietary treatment were unbiased, allowing for real dietary effects to be accurately assessed. In conclusion, layer pullets challenged with R low MG undergo a stress response associated with changes in various physiological blood variables, and a decrease in pH and increase in carbon dioxide partial pressure, in association with a lack of change in bicarbonate, indicates that the stress response caused by the R low MG challenge was associated with respiratory acidosis. Nevertheless, feeding XPC did not influence the effects of challenge treatment on these postchallenge physiological blood values., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Protein bars are one product that meet consumer demands for a low-carbohydrate, high-protein food. With such a large market for protein bars, producers need to find the correct texture and sweetness levels to satisfy consumers while still delivering a high-protein, low-carbohydrate bar. In the bar industry, bar hardening is a major concern, and currently the effects of non-nutritive sweeteners on bar hardening is unknown. Due to the negative implications of bar hardening, it is important to investigate the sweetener-protein relationship with bar hardening. The objective of this study was to characterize the effects of sweetener and protein source on flavor, texture, and shelf life of high-protein, low-carbohydrate bars. The iso-sweet concentration of sweeteners (sucralose, sucrose, monk fruit, stevia, and fructose) in pea protein (PP), milk protein (MP) and whey protein isolate (WPI) bars were established using magnitude estimation scaling and 2-alternative forced-choice testing. Descriptive analysis and temporal check-all-that-apply methods were then applied to determine flavor and temporal differences between the protein bars. Finally, an accelerated shelf life study was completed to understand how sweetener and protein types affect the shelf life of protein bars. The 15 protein bars formulated at iso-sweet concentration were all stored at 35°C and 55% humidity for 35 d, and measurements were taken every 7 d, beginning at d 1 (d 1, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35). Bars made with MP required significantly less sweetener, compared with PP and WPI, to reach equal sweetness. Bars sweetened with stevia or monk fruit had distinct bitter and metallic tastes, and sucralose had a low metallic taste. Bars made with WPI were the most cohesive, and PP and WPI bars were more bitter and metallic compared with MP bars. Bars made with WPI and fructose were initially the hardest, but after d 14 they scored at parity with PP sucrose. There were no significant differences among bars in terms of hardness by d 21. Bars made with WPI were consistently denser at all time points than bars made with PP or MP. Bars made with PP were the driest and least cohesive and had the fastest rate of breakdown in the study. Non-nutritive sweeteners did not have a negative effect on bar hardness in low-carbohydrate, high-protein bars. Findings from this study can be applied to commercially produced protein bars for naturally sweetened bars with different protein types without negative effects on protein bar texture., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Effects of dietary Original XPC (XPC) in commercial layer pullets challenged with the virulent, low passage R strain of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (R low MG) were investigated. Hy-Line W-36 pullets sourced from MG-clean breeders were fed a basal diet with or without (CON) XPC (1.25 kg/metric ton) from hatch until 12 wk of age (woa). At 8 and 10 woa, half of the birds in each dietary treatment were challenged with R low MG. Body weight was recorded at 3, 8, and 12 woa, and ovary, ceca, and bursa weights were recorded at 3 and 12 woa. Blood samples were taken immediately before the initial R low MG challenge at 8 woa and again at 12 woa to test for IgM and IgG antibody production against MG. All birds were evaluated for MG lesion scores at 12 woa. Regardless of challenge, inclusion of XPC in the diet did not significantly alter BW at 3 or 8 woa or relative organ weights at 3 or 12 woa. However, at 12 woa, BW of XPC-fed birds, regardless of challenge was significantly (P = 0.0038) heavier than CON by 25.7 g. All birds tested negative for MG antibodies before the 8 woa challenge. Respective percentage serum plate agglutination and ELISA positive birds at 12 woa were 0 and 0% (CON, nonchallenged), 1.4 and 0% (XPC, nonchallenged), 100 and 47.2% (CON, challenged), and 100 and 50.0% (XPC, challenged). Diet did not significantly affect ELISA titers, but they were significantly (P < 0.0001) increased due to challenge. Furthermore, lesion scores were significantly higher for R low MG-challenged birds (P = 0.0012), and dietary treatment with XPC in challenged birds numerically reduced MG lesion scores from 0.278 to 0.194. In conclusion, although dietary XPC did not significantly alter the humoral immune response, antibody titer levels, or severity of MG lesions in layer pullets that were or were not challenged with R low MG, it led to an increase in their rate of growth through 12 woa., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Villus to crypt ratio (VCR) is used to quantify the microanatomical response of the intestine to various treatments. In early age chickens, comparative effects of the in ovo (i.o.) and s.c. methods of administration (moa) of the Marek's disease (MD) vaccine on 2 types of measurement of small intestinal VCR at 0 and 4 h post-hatch (poh) were investigated. The effects of moa and 4 and 18 h pre-placement holding times (pht) on the VCR measurements at 168 h (7 d) poh were also investigated. In the jejunum of the small intestine, a standard method for VCR determination, based on 10 villus and crypt length measurements, was utilized for the calculation of villus to crypt length ratio (VCLR). In that same region, a single histomorphometric determination of the crypt and total mucosa areas using image analysis software was also used. Subtraction of the crypt area from the total mucosa area provided the villus area, allowing for calculation of the villus to crypt area ratio (VCAR). Across 0, 4, and 18 h of poh bird age, the VCLR of birds that received an s.c. vaccination was higher in comparison to that of those that received an i.o. vaccination. The highest and lowest VCAR values were observed in the s.c. treatment at 0 h poh and in the i.o. treatment at 4 h poh, respectively. Furthermore, at 168 h poh, VCLR values in the 18 h pht and s.c. vaccination group were higher than those in the 4 h pht and s.c. vaccination or 18 h and i.o. vaccination groups. In conclusion, the effects of pht and MD vaccine moa on VCR were dependent on the use of either the VCLR or VCAR method of measurement. However, regardless of method, s.c. injection overall led to a higher VCR through 4 h poh in Ross 708 broilers, and the effects of moa on VCLR at 168 h were influenced by pht., (© 2018 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Inovocox EM1 vaccine (EM1) is hatchery-applied via in ovo injection for the control of coccidiosis in broiler chickens. Effects of 3 in ovo injection treatments (INT) and 2 turn-out times (TOT) on the hatching chick quality variables and 35 d posthatch performance of Ross × Ross 708 broilers were investigated. In a single-stage incubator, 1,440 hatching eggs were randomly distributed among 3 INT groups on each of 8 tray levels. At 19 d of incubation (doi), embryonated eggs were subjected to one of the following INT by in ovo injection: noninjected control; 1 × dose of EM1; 10 × dose of EM1. On 21 doi, hatchability of injected eggs (HI), hatching body weight (HBW), and hatching chick quality variables were determined. Additionally, for the grow-out phase, birds belonging to each INT were randomly subjected to a 7 or 10 d TOT. Twenty chicks were initially placed in each of 48 floor pens (6 INT × TOT combination groups × 8 replications) for growth performance evaluation from 0 to 35 d posthatch. The main effect of INT on hatching chick quality variables, as well as the main and interactive effects of INT and TOT on various grow-out performance variables were determined. Although there was no significant INT effect on HI or HBW, significant INT effects on chick total BW, yolk-free BW, and yolk sac weight were observed. There were significant INT effects on BWG and FCR in the 21- to 28-d posthatch interval, as well as on BWG and FCR in the 0- to 35-d posthatch interval. There was no main effect of TOT or interactive effect of INT and TOT on BW and other performance variables from 0 to 35 d posthatch. There was a significant main effect of INT on relative intestine weight at 28 d posthatch. In conclusion, the injection of EM1 vaccine at a 10 × dose may affect hatching chick quality variables and growth performance up to 35 d posthatch.

The determination of intestinal villus to crypt ratios (VCR) is a common method utilized to evaluate effects of various diet regimens on gut microanatomy and for the histologic quantification of intestinal responses to disease processes. Two methods for the determination of small intestinal VCR were compared in early age chickens. A standard method for VCR determination based on 10 villus and crypt length measurements in the jejunal region of the small intestine was employed for the calculation of villus to crypt length ratio (VCLR). That method was compared to a new approach based on a single histomorphometric determination of the crypt and total mucosal areas using image analysis software. Subtraction of the crypt area from the total area provided the villus area and allowed for the subsequent calculation of villus to crypt area ratio (VCAR). At 4 and 18 h posthatch, VCLR was higher than that of VCAR, but there was no significant difference between VCLR and VCAR at 0 h (hatch) and at 168 h (d 7) posthatch. Nevertheless, the pattern of age-associated changes for VCLR and VCAR were comparable throughout the early posthatch period. Furthermore, the new method used in determining VCAR is subject to less human error, allows for an appreciable reduction in the number of measurements required, and facilitates a larger intestinal segment evaluation. Standard linear measurements require the selection of variable numbers of villi and crypts, whereas the area method only requires selection of a single region that incorporates numerous villi and crypts of variable sizes in providing a less subjective approach. This is particularly advantageous in studies on intestinal disease conditions resulting in marked multifocal variation in villus stature. This study further documented age-associated changes occurring in the VCR of the small intestine during the early posthatch period. Across the 2 methods used for VCR determination, a major and highly significant reduction in the VCR was observed to occur between 18 h and 168 h posthatch.

OBJECTIVE To determine mortality rates for dogs undergoing cholecystectomy and variables associated with failure to survive to hospital discharge. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. ANIMALS 70 dogs that underwent cholecystectomy for biliary tract disease at a companion animal referral hospital from 2009 through 2015. PROCEDURES Medical records of dogs were reviewed and data collected; dogs with biliary diversion surgery were excluded. Included dogs were grouped by whether cholecystectomy had been elective (ie, dogs with no or mild clinical signs, with no indication of biliary obstruction, or that initially underwent surgery for a different procedure) or nonelective (ie, dogs with icterus and questionable patency of the biliary system). Mortality rates (proportions of dogs that failed to survive to hospital discharge) were compared between various groups. RESULTS 45 (64%) dogs were included in the elective group and 25 (36%) in the nonelective group. Group mortality rates were 2% (1/45) and 20% (5/25), respectively, and differed significantly. Overall mortality rate was 9% (6/70). Serum albumin concentration was significantly lower and serum alanine aminotransferase activity and total bilirubin concentration were significantly higher in nonsurviving versus surviving dogs. Dogs with vomiting, signs of lethargy or anorexia, icterus, or azotemia were less likely to survive than dogs without these signs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Dogs that underwent elective cholecystectomy had a considerably lower mortality rate than previously reported. Elective cholecystectomy may be an appropriate recommendation for dogs with early signs of biliary disease to avoid the greater mortality rate associated with more advanced disease and nonelective cholecystectomy.

Dissolved oxygen is a critical component of river water quality. This study investigated average weekly dissolved oxygen (AWDO) and average weekly water temperature (AWT) in the Savannah River during 2015 and 2016 using data from the Intelligent River ® sensor network. Weekly data and seasonal summary statistics revealed distinct seasonal patterns that impact both AWDO and AWT regardless of location along the river. Within seasons, spatial patterns of AWDO and AWT along the river are also evident. Linear mixed effects models indicate that AWT and low and high river flow conditions had a significant impact on AWDO, but added little predictive information to the models. Low and high river flow conditions had a significant impact on AWT, but also added little predictive information to the models. Spatial linear mixed effects models yielded parameter estimates that were effectively the same as non-spatial linear mixed effects models. However, components of variance from spatial linear mixed effects models indicate that 23-32% of the total variance in AWDO and that 12-18% of total variance in AWT can be apportioned to the effect of spatial covariance. These results indicate that location, week, and flow-directional spatial relationships are critically important considerations for investigating relationships between space- and time-varying water quality metrics.

Fluid-feeding insects ingest a variety of liquids, which are present in the environment as pools, films, or confined to small pores. Studies of liquid acquisition require assessing mouthpart structure and function relationships; however, fluid uptake mechanisms are historically inferred from observations of structural architecture, sometimes unaccompanied with experimental evidence. Here, we report a novel method for assessing fluid-uptake abilities with butterflies (Lepidoptera) and flies (Diptera) using small amounts of liquids. Insects are fed with a 20% sucrose solution mixed with fluorescent, magnetic nanoparticles from filter papers of specific pore sizes. The crop (internal structure used for storing fluids) is removed from the insect and placed on a confocal microscope. A magnet is waved by the crop to determine the presence of nanoparticles, which indicate if the insects are able to ingest fluids. This methodology is used to reveal a widespread feeding mechanism (capillary action and liquid bridge formation) that is potentially shared among Lepidoptera and Diptera when feeding from porous surfaces. In addition, this method can be used for studies of feeding mechanisms among a variety of fluid-feeding insects, including those important in disease transmission and biomimetics, and potentially other studies that involve nano- or micro-sized conduits where liquid transport requires verification.

Objective: To determine whether 2.0 mm cancellous screws are superior to 2.0 mm cortical screws when inserted into cancellous and bicortical bone., Study Design: Biomechanical study., Methods: The 2.0 mm cancellous screws and 2.0 mm cortical screws were inserted according to the recommended guidelines in synthetic cancellous and bicortical blocks. Fifteen screw-block constructs per group were tested to failure in axial pullout. Axial pullout strength and yield strength were calculated. Data were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA., Results: The 2.0 mm cortical screws achieved lower axial pullout strength than 2.0 mm cancellous screws in cancellous blocks. The 2.0 mm cortical screws achieved greater pullout strength than 2.0 mm cancellous screws in bicortical blocks., Conclusion: The 2.0 mm cancellous screws may offer a biomechanical advantage in bone with thin cortices (<1 mm thick), whereas 2.0 mm cortical screws may be preferred in cortical bone with cortices measuring at least 1 mm in thickness., (© 2017 The American College of Veterinary Surgeons.)

Effects of the in ovo (i.o.) or subcutaneous (s.c.) method of administration (moa) of the Marek's disease (MD) vaccine and 4 or 18 h pre-placement holding time (pht) on the processing yield of male broilers through 49 d of age (doa) were investigated. Ross 708 broiler hatching eggs (3,900) were either i.o.-vaccinated at 18 d of incubation or chicks from eggs that were not i.o.-vaccinated were s.c.-vaccinated at hatch. The i.o. injections (50 μL) were delivered by a commercial multi-egg injector and s.c. injections (200 μL) were delivered by an automatic pneumatic s.c. injector. The pht was imposed on chicks after vaccination. Sixteen birds were initially assigned to each of 15 replicate floor pens belonging to each of the moa and pht combination groups and were grown out through 48 doa. At 48 doa, 6 birds were randomly selected from each replicate pen and were weighed and fasted for 16 h before being processed. At 49 doa, whole carcass, fat pad, breast muscle, and tenders muscles weights were recorded. Whole carcass weight as a percentage of live BW, and fat pad, breast muscle, and tenders muscles weights as percentages of both live and whole carcass weights were calculated. Upon subjection of the data to a 2 × 2 factorial analysis, only a main effect due to moa was observed for tenders muscles weight as a percentage of live and whole carcass weights. Tenders muscles weight as a percentage of both live (P ≤ 0.010) and whole carcass (P ≤ 0.004) weight was higher in birds hatched from eggs that received i.o. rather than s.c. vaccinations. In conclusion, in comparison to s.c. vaccination, i.o. vaccination increased relative tenders weight yield, whether or not broilers were held for 4 or 18 h prior to placement. Therefore, with regard to broiler processing yield, i.o. and s.c. vaccinations were safe for the administration of the MD vaccine, with i.o. vaccination displaying a slight potential advantage., (© 2017 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is a bacterial pathogen that causes production losses in layer chickens. To combat MG, multiage layer facilities vaccinate pullets by either spray or eye-drop vaccination. The objective in this study was to evaluate the use of in ovo vaccination as a potential alternative for MG vaccination. Layer embryos at 18 d of incubation were either not-injected (control), or were hand-injected with either commercial Marek's disease vaccine diluent alone or with a high, medium, low, or very low dosage of a live attenuated strain F (FMG) vaccine suspended in the commercial diluent. Hatch success and residual egg embryonic mortality were determined after 23 d of incubation. Six hatched chicks per treatment were swabbed for the detection of FMG at 4 different sites (trachea, mouth and esophagus, yolk sac membrane, and the lumen of the duodenal loop) via real-time PCR. Embryos were found to be administered 106 CFU per dose in the high treatment, 104 CFU/dose in the medium treatment, 102 CFU/dose in the low treatment, and between 5.06 and 5.93 CFU/dose in the very low treatment. Hatch of embryonated eggs was decreased by the medium and high doses (P = 0.02). These embryos died while pipping. No FMG was detected in the control and diluent-injected chicks. In the FMG treatments, FMG was found in all sites and dosages, with a greater number of positive chicks found in the higher FMG dosage treatments. These findings indicate the potential practicality of vaccinating layer embryos with FMG by in ovo injection based on the observed hatch success at lower dosages. Also, once injected into the amnion, the bacteria are present in the upper respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts as well the yolk sac membrane and the small intestine of hatchlings. Future research will need to ascertain the effects of FMG administered by in ovo injection on posthatch immunity and mortality., (© 2017 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

During breeding, foraging marine birds are under biological, geographic, and temporal constraints. These contraints require foraging birds to efficiently process environmental cues derived from physical habitat features that occur at nested spatial scales. Mesoscale oceanography in particular may change rapidly within and between breeding seasons, and findings from well-studied systems that relate oceanography to seabird foraging may transfer poorly to regions with substantially different oceanographic conditions. Our objective was to examine foraging behavior of a pan-tropical seabird, the Masked Booby (Sula dactylatra), in the understudied Caribbean province, a moderately productive region driven by highly dynamic currents and fronts. We tracked 135 individuals with GPS units during May 2013, November 2013, and December 2014 at a regionally important breeding colony in the southern Gulf of Mexico. We measured foraging behavior using characteristics of foraging trips and used area restricted search as a proxy for foraging events. Among individual attributes, nest stage contributed to differences in foraging behavior whereas sex did not. Birds searched for prey at nested hierarchical scales ranging from 200 m-35 km. Large-scale coastal and shelf-slope fronts shifted position between sampling periods and overlapped geographically with overall foraging locations. At small scales (at the prey patch level), the specific relationship between environmental variables and foraging behavior was highly variable among individuals but general patterns emerged. Sea surface height anomaly and velocity of water were the strongest predictors of area restricted search behavior in random forest models, a finding that is consistent with the characterization of the Gulf of Mexico as an energetic system strongly influenced by currents and eddies. Our data may be combined with tracking efforts in the Caribbean province and across tropical regions to advance understanding of seabird sensing of the environment and serve as a baseline for anthropogenic based threats such as development, pollution, and commercial fisheries.

Because xenosensing nuclear receptors are also lipid sensors that regulate lipid allocation, we hypothesized that toxicant-induced modulation of HR96 activity would alter lipid profiles and the balance between adult survival and neonate production following exposure in Daphnia magna. Adult daphnids were exposed to unsaturated fatty acid- and toxicant- activators or inhibitors of HR96 and later starved to test whether chemical exposure altered allocation toward survival or reproduction. The HR96 activators, linoleic acid and atrazine, decreased reproduction as expected with concomitant changes in the expression of HR96 regulated genes such as magro. The HR96 inhibitors, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and triclosan, increased reproduction or neonate starvation survival, respectively. However, pre-exposure to triclosan increased in neonate survival at the expense of reproductive maturation. Lipidomic analysis revealed that sphingomyelins (SM) are predominantly found in neonates and therefore we propose are important in development. DHA and triclosan increased neonatal SM, consistent with HR96's regulation of Niemann-Pick genes. While DHA altered expression of magro, Niemann-Pick 1b, mannosidase, and other HR96-regulated genes as expected, triclosan primarily perturbed sphingomyelinase and mannosidase expression indicating different but potentially overlapping mechanisms for perturbing SM. Overall, SM appears to be a key lipid in Daphnia maturation and further support was provided by carmofur, which inhibits sphingomyelin/ceramide metabolism and in turn severely represses Daphnia maturation and initial brood production. In conclusion, toxicants can perturb lipid allocation and in turn impair development and reproduction.

Effects of 2 types of methods of administration (moa; in ovo or s.c.) of the Marek's disease (MD) vaccine and 4 and 18 h pre-placement holding times (pht) on the performance of male broilers through 48 d of age were investigated. Ross 708 broiler hatching eggs (3,900) were either in ovo-vaccinated at 18 d of incubation or chicks from eggs that were not in ovo-injected were vaccinated s.c. at hatch, and chicks from each moa group were held for one of the 2 pht. In ovo injections (50 μL) were delivered by a commercial multi-egg injector and s.c. injections (0.2 mL) were delivered by an automatic pneumatic s.c. injector. Sixteen birds were assigned to each of 15 replicate floor pens belonging to each of the 4 moa and pht combination groups. Mortality and BW gain were determined at weekly intervals, and feed consumption and conversion were determined in the zero to 14, 14 to 28, 28 to 42, and 42 to 48 d age intervals. No interactive effects between moa and pht were observed for any variable, and mortality was not significantly affected by moa or pht. The 14 to 28 d feed consumption and 14 to 21 d BW gain of s.c.-vaccinated birds were lower than that of in ovo-vaccinated birds, and the increase in pht from 4 to 18 h decreased feed consumption through 28 d post hatch and BW gain through 35 d post hatch. Overall, the performances of male Ross 708 broilers through 48 d of age in response to in ovo and s.c. injections of the MD vaccine were comparable, and delays in hatchling placement should be less that 18 h in duration. Furthermore, despite the decrease in BW gain through 35 d associated with the reduction in feed consumption through 28 d in response to the 14 h increase in pht, in ovo injection did not exacerbate the effect of the increase in pht., (© 2016 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Fluid-feeding insects, such as butterflies, moths and flies (20% of all animal species), are faced with the common selection pressure of having to remove and feed on trace amounts of fluids from porous surfaces. Insects able to acquire fluids that are confined to pores during drought conditions would have an adaptive advantage and increased fitness over other individuals. Here, we performed feeding trials using solutions with magnetic nanoparticles to show that butterflies and flies have mouthparts adapted to pull liquids from porous surfaces using capillary action as the governing principle. In addition, the ability to feed on the liquids collected from pores depends on a relationship between the diameter of the mouthpart conduits and substrate pore size diameter; insects with mouthpart conduit diameters larger than the pores cannot successfully feed, thus there is a limiting substrate pore size from which each species can acquire liquids for fluid uptake. Given that natural selection independently favoured mouthpart architectures that support these methods of fluid uptake (Diptera and Lepidoptera share a common ancestor 280 Ma that had chewing mouthparts), we suggest that the convergence of this mechanism advocates this as an optimal strategy for pulling trace amounts of fluids from porous surfaces., (© 2017 The Author(s).)

Clustered binary data occur frequently in many application areas. When analyzing data of this form, ignoring key features, such as the intracluster correlation, may lead to inaccurate inference; e.g., inflated Type I error rates. For clustered binary data, Gerard and Schucany (2007) proposed an exact test for examining whether the marginal probability of a response differs from 0.5, which is the null hypothesis considered in the classic sign test. This new test maintains the specified Type I error rate and has more power, when compared to both the classic sign and permutation tests. The test statistic proposed by these authors equally weights the observed data from each cluster, regardless of whether the clusters are of equal size. To further improve the performance of the Gerard and Schucany test, a weighted test statistic is proposed and two weighting schemes are investigated. Seeking to further improve the performance of the proposed test, empirical Bayes estimates of the cluster level success probabilities are utilized. These adaptations lead to 5 new tests, each of which are shown through simulation studies to be superior to the Gerard and Schucany (2007) test. The proposed tests are further illustrated using data from a chemical repellency trial.

The relationships of eggshell, air cell, and embryo cloacal temperatures in Ross × Ross 708 broiler hatching eggs were determined. Twenty eggs were weighed and set on each of 3 tray levels of a single incubator. Eggshell temperature (EST) of the eggs were recorded once in the morning (AM) and afternoon (PM) between 0 and 19 d of incubation (DOI) using an infrared thermometer (IRT). All eggs were candled and a transponder was implanted in the air cell of eggs containing live embryos (12 per tray level) at 12 DOI. At 19 DOI, transponders were implanted in the cloaca of live embryos from those same eggs. Air cell temperature (ACT) and EST readings were recorded once in the AM and PM between 12 and 19 DOI, and ACT and cloaca temperature (CLT) readings were recorded every 6 h between 19 and 21 DOI. The EST and ACT readings between 13 and 19 DOI were positively correlated. However, their respective mean temperatures between 13 and 19 DOI differed. The EST and ACT were not significantly influenced by tray level. Nevertheless, a main effect due to location (eggshell vs. air cell), and an interaction between DOI and time of day (AM and PM) in the 13 to 19 DOI interval were observed. Furthermore, an interaction was observed between location (air cell and cloaca) and the 6 h sequential time periods in the 19 to 21 DOI interval. However, across the entire 19 to 21 DOI interval, mean ACT and CLT were not significantly different, and were positively correlated. These data suggest that ACT readings are higher than those of EST during the last half of incubation, and that between 13 and 19 DOI, ACT readings may have the potential for use as a minimally invasive method by which to more accurately estimate the true core body temperature of broiler embryos. The effects of this method on hatchability and post-hatch performance need determination to better establish its practicality., (© 2016 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Objectives: Numerous studies have examined the biomechanics of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) with added antibiotics, but direct comparison between studies is difficult. Our purpose was to evaluate the effects of the addition of antibiotic drugs and silver on compressive and bending strength of PMMA. Our null hypothesis was that there would be no significant difference in the compressive strength or bending strength of PMMA with the addition of silver or varying amounts of antibiotic drugs., Methods: Polymethyl methacrylate was mixed with cefazolin, gentamicin, vancomycin, or silver; the control was PMMA alone. Antibiotic groups contained 20 g PMMA and 0.5 g, 1 g, 2 g, or 3 g of antibiotic. Silver groups had 0.25 g silver powder alone added to 20 g PMMA or silver with PMMA and 0, 0.5 g or 1 g of antibiotic. Samples underwent four-point bending and compression testing in air at room temperature and prevailing humidity. Pairwise comparisons between groups and to the ASTM and ISO standards were performed., Results: Compression: All antibiotic and silver groups were weaker than the control. Samples with cefazolin tended to be stronger than other antibiotic groups with equivalent doses of antibiotic. All groups were above the ASTM standard, except 3 g vancomycin. Four-point bending: The addition of antibiotics did not significantly affect bending strength in groups with lower doses of antibiotics. The silver + PMMA group was weaker than the control. No groups were significantly below the ISO standard except the 3 g vancomycin group., Clinical Significance: The addition of antibiotic or silver decreased the biomechanical strength in all samples, but not below the ASTM or ISO standard for most groups. The addition of cefazolin appears to affect strength the least, while high doses of vancomycin alter strength the most.

Most butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) use modified mouthparts, the proboscis, to acquire fluids. We quantified the proboscis architecture of five butterfly species in three families to test the hypothesis that proboscis structure relates to feeding guild. We used scanning electron microscopy to elucidate the fine structure of the proboscis of both sexes and to quantify dimensions, cuticular patterns, and the shapes and sizes of sensilla and dorsal legulae. Sexual dimorphism was not detected in the proboscis structure of any species. A hierarchical clustering analysis of overall proboscis architecture reflected lepidopteran phylogeny, but did not produce a distinct group of flower visitors or of puddle visitors within the flower visitors. Specific characters of the proboscis, nonetheless, can indicate flower and nonflower visitors, such as the configuration of sensilla styloconica, width of the lower branches of dorsal legulae, presence or absence of dorsal legulae at the extreme apex, and degree of proboscis tapering. We suggest that the overall proboscis architecture of Lepidoptera reflects a universal structural organization that promotes fluid uptake from droplets and films. On top of this fundamental structural organization, we suggest that the diversity of floral structure has selected for structural adaptations that facilitate entry of the proboscis into floral tubes., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Acclimating to toxicant stress is energy expensive. In laboratory toxicology tests dietary conditions are ideal, but not in natural environments where nutrient resources vary in quality and quantity. We compared the effects of additional lipid resources, docosahexaenoic acid (n-3; DHA) or linoleic acid (n-6; LA), or the effects of the toxicants, atrazine or triclosan on post-treatment starvation survival, reproduction, and lipid profiles. Chemical exposure prior to starvation had chemical-specific effects as DHA showed moderately beneficial effects on starvation survival and all of the other chemicals showed adverse effects on either survival or reproduction. Surprisingly, pre-exposure to triclosan inhibits adult maturation and in turn completely blocks reproduction during the starvation phase. The two HR96 activators tested, atrazine and LA adversely reduce post-reproduction survival 70% during starvation and in turn show poor fecundity. DHA and LA show distinctly different lipid profiles as DHA primarily increases the percentage of large (>37 carbon) phosphatidylcholine (PC) species and LA primarily increases the percentage of smaller (<37 carbon) PC species. The toxicants atrazine and triclosan moderately perturb a large number of different phospholipids including several phosphatidylethanolamine species. Some of these polar lipid species may be biomarkers for diets rich in specific fatty acids or toxicant classes. Overall our data demonstrates that toxicants can perturb lipid utilization and storage in daphnids in a chemical specific manner, and different chemicals can produce distinct polar lipid profiles. In summary, biological effects caused by fatty acids and toxicants are associated with changes in the production and use of lipids., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is a major and economically significant pathogen of avian species. When administered before lay, F-strain MG (FMG) can reduce egg production during lay, but the ts-11 strain of MG (ts11MG) does not exert this effect. Two trials were conducted to determine the effects of pre-lay vaccinations of ts11MG, MG-Bacterin (MGBac), or their combination, in conjunction with an FMG vaccination overlay after peak production on the digestive and reproductive organ characteristics of Hy-Line W-36 layers housed in biological isolation units (4 units per treatment, 10 birds per unit). The following vaccination treatments were administered at 10 wk of age (woa): 1) Control (no vaccinations); 2) MGBac; 3) ts11MG; and 4) ts11MG and MGBac combination (ts11MG+MGBac). At 45 woa, half of the birds were vaccinated with a laboratory stock of high passage FMG. In both trials, parameters determined in 4 birds per unit at 55 woa included: BW; fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome incidence; mean number of mature ovarian follicles; ovarian, oviduct, and small intestine weights; and the weights and lengths of the various portions of the oviduct and small intestine. Treatment effects were observed for the weights of the entire small intestine and the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, as percentages of BW; and for vagina weight as a percentage of total oviduct weight. In general, the weights of the small intestine and its 3 components were increased in response to the FMG vaccine that was administered at 45 woa. An FMG vaccination at 45 woa may increase relative intestine weight in layers; however, use of a prelay MGBac vaccine alone or in combination with ts11MG, with or without an FMG overlay, does not affect the gross characteristics of their digestive and reproductive organs, and may be used without having an adverse effect on their performance, as was observed in a previous companion study., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Effects of the in ovo injection of organic Mn, Zn, and Cu in association with post-hatch (POH) feed and water restriction on the performance and physical-chemical bone parameters of male Ross × Ross 708 broilers were examined. On 17 d of incubation, a total of 1,872 eggs were subjected to in ovo injection using a commercial multi-egg injector. Treatments (TRT) includingd non-injected and diluent-injected controls. The respective Zn, Mn, and Cu levels (mg/mL) added to the diluent of the low (LMD) and high mineral (HMD) TRT groups were 0.181, 0.087, and 0.010, and 0.544, 0.260, and 0.030, respectively. The 4 TRT groups were then sub-divided into 2 POH holding time (HT) groups, with 15 birds randomly allocated to each of 6 replicate pens in each of the 8 groups. The first HT group (0HT) had immediate access to water and feed, and the second HT group (24HT) contained birds that were kept in transport baskets for 24 h before being released. Performance was determined and selected birds were subsequently necropsied and their tibiae extracted for analysis. In comparison to birds from 24HT group, those in the 0HT group had a higher BW gain and feed intake, and a lower FCR through 21 d POH. The percentage of bone ash of the birds belonging to the HMD group was higher than all other TRT on d 1 POH and was higher than the non-injection control group on d 21 POH. On d 1, the LMD and HMD groups had higher tibial Mn concentrations than those of the control groups. On d 7, bones from the HMD group had a higher concentration of Mn than did the non-injected control group, and likewise, on d 21 POH, had a higher concentration of Zn than did the control groups. In conclusion, a 24HT negatively affected the performance of the birds during the first 2 wk POH; however, the LMD and HMD TRT had a positive influence on bone mineralization., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Much of the fluid whey produced in the United States is a by-product of Cheddar cheese manufacture and must be bleached. Benzoyl peroxide (BP) is currently 1 of only 2 legal chemical bleaching agents for fluid whey in the United States, but benzoic acid is an unavoidable by-product of BP bleaching. Benzoyl peroxide is typically a powder, but new liquid BP dispersions are available. A greater understanding of the bleaching characteristics of BP is necessary. The objective of the study was to compare norbixin destruction, residual benzoic acid, and flavor differences between liquid whey and 80% whey protein concentrates (WPC80) bleached at different temperatures with 2 different benzoyl peroxides (soluble and insoluble). Two experiments were conducted in this study. For experiment 1, 3 factors (temperature, bleach type, bleach concentration) were evaluated for norbixin destruction using a response surface model-central composite design in liquid whey. For experiment 2, norbixin concentration, residual benzoic acid, and flavor differences were explored in WPC80 from whey bleached by the 2 commercially available BP (soluble and insoluble) at 5 mg/kg. In liquid whey, soluble BP bleached more norbixin than insoluble BP, especially at lower concentrations (5 and 10 mg/kg) at both cold (4°C) and hot (50°C) temperatures. The WPC80 from liquid whey bleached with BP at 50°C had lower norbixin concentration, benzoic acid levels, cardboard flavor, and aldehyde levels than WPC80 from liquid whey bleached with BP at 4°C. Regardless of temperature, soluble BP destroyed more norbixin at lower concentrations than insoluble BP. The WPC80 from soluble-BP-bleached wheys had lower cardboard flavor and lower aldehyde levels than WPC80 from insoluble-BP-bleached whey. This study suggests that new, soluble (liquid) BP can be used at lower concentrations than insoluble BP to achieve equivalent bleaching and that less residual benzoic acid remains in WPC80 powder from liquid whey bleached hot (50°C) than cold (4°C), which may provide opportunities to reduce benzoic acid residues in dried whey ingredients, expanding their marketability., (Copyright © 2015 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Effects of the in ovo injection of commercial diluent containing supplemental microminerals (Zn, Mn, and Cu) on hatchability and hatching chick quality variables in Ross × Ross 708 broilers were examined. On 17 d of incubation (doi) eggs were subjected to 1 of 4 treatments using a commercial multi-egg injector. Treatments included non-injected (treatment 1) and diluent-injected (treatment 2) control groups. Those in treatment 3 received diluent containing 0.181, 0.087, and 0.010 mg/mL of Zn, Mn, and Cu, respectively, and those in treatment 4 received diluent containing 0.544, 0.260, and 0.030 mg/mL of Zn, Mn, and Cu, respectively. A total of 1,872 eggs were distributed among 4 treatment groups on each of 6 replicate tray levels. Hatchability of fertile eggs set (HF) was determined on 20.5 and 21.5 doi. On 21.5 doi, HF and mean hatching chick weight (MHW) were determined. One bird from each treatment replicate group was randomly selected, weighed, and necropsied for the extraction of their livers and tibiae. The tibiae fresh and dry weight, length, width, bone breaking strength (BBS), and percentage of bone ash (PBA) were determined. The dry livers were weighed and ashed. Injection treatment had no significant effect on HF at 20.5 doi. However, there was a significant injection treatment effect on HF at 21.5 doi. The HF of eggs at 21.5 doi in treatment 4 was significantly lower than that of the non-injected control group, with treatment 3 being intermediate. Furthermore, there were no significant treatment effects noted for MHW fresh and dry tibia weights, tibia length and width, tibia length to weight ratio, BBS, liver ash content, or percentage of minerals (Ca, P, Mg, Mn, and Zn) in the tibia ash. However, embryos from eggs that received treatment 4 had a significantly higher PBA in comparison to all other treatments. In conclusion, although treatment 4 negatively affected HF, the injection of diluent containing the high micromineral concentration has the potential to improve bone mineralization., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is a major and economically significant pathogen of avian species. When administered before lay, F-strain MG (FMG) can reduce egg production during lay, but the ts-11 strain of MG (ts11MG) does not exert this effect. Two trials were conducted to determine the effects of pre-lay vaccinations of ts11MG, MG-Bacterin (MGBac), or their combination, in conjunction with an FMG challenge overlay after peak production on the blood characteristics of commercial layers. In each trial, 160 mycoplasma-free Hy-Line W-36 layers were housed in negative-pressure biological isolation units (4 units per treatment, 10 birds per unit) from 9 through 52 wk of age (woa). The following vaccination treatments were administered at 10 woa: 1) Control (no vaccinations); 2) MGBac; 3) ts11MG; and 4) ts11MG and MGBac combination (ts11MG+MGBac). At 45 woa, half of the birds were challenged with a laboratory stock of high-passage FMG. Parameters measured in both trials were whole-blood hematocrit and serum concentrations of cholesterol (SCHOL), triglycerides, calcium, and total protein (STP). An age×treatment interaction (P=0.04) was observed for STP between 23 and 43 woa. The STP concentration in the ts11MG and ts11MG+MGBac groups was higher at 33 woa, but was lower at 43 woa, in comparison to the Control group. Also, at 38 woa, the STP of the ts11MG+MGBac group was higher than that of the MGBac group. Although use of the ts11MG vaccine alone or in combination with MGBac may influence circulating STP concentrations when administered before lay, it remains effective in protecting layers against the adverse effect of a post-peak challenge of FMG on egg production, as was observed in a previous companion study., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Serum concentrations of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol [25(OH)D3] in broiler embryos at 19 d of incubation:doi:have been shown to increase 3 times by the in ovo injection of 0.60 μg 25(OH)D3 on 18 doi. In this trial, effects of the injection of 25(OH)D3 at 18 doi on the yolks and sera of male and female Ross×Ross 708 broiler embryos were assessed. On 18 doi, embryonated eggs that were set in a single stage incubator were assigned to 6 replicate trays within each of 2 injection treatment groups. Treatments included those injected with 100 μL commercial diluent (control) and those injected with 0.60 μg 25(OH)D3 in 100 μL commercial diluent. On 19 doi, embryos and their yolk sacs were extracted for determination of sex, yolk weight, BW, serum CA and phosphorous concentrations, and yolk CA, phosphorous, moisture, dry matter, and lipid concentrations. The weight of female embryos with their attached yolk sacs as a percentage of set egg weight was greater than that of males (P=0.03). There were treatment×sex interactions for the weight of embryos with their attached yolk sacs relative to 19 doi egg weight (P=0.05) and for yolk CA concentration (P=0.004). In eggs that received 25(OH)D3, the weight of female embryos with their attached yolk sacs relative to 19 doi egg weight was higher than that of males (P=0.005), and percentage yolk CA was higher in control eggs containing female embryos in comparison to those containing males (P=0.007). An injection of 0.60 μg 25(OH)D3 at 18 doi eliminated yolk CA differences associated with embryo sex, suggesting that 25(OH)D3 may influence sex-related differences in the rate of yolk CA absorption by broiler embryos and may be related to subsequent sex-related differences in posthatch bone strength., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Arachidonic acid is 1 of only 2 unsaturated fatty acids retained in the ovaries of crustaceans and an inhibitor of HR97g, a nuclear receptor expressed in adult ovaries. The authors hypothesized that, as a key fatty acid, arachidonic acid may be associated with reproduction and potentially environmental sex determination in Daphnia. Reproduction assays with arachidonic acid indicate that it alters female:male sex ratios by increasing female production. This reproductive effect only occurred during a restricted Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata diet. Next, the authors tested whether enriching a poorer algal diet (Chlorella vulgaris) with arachidonic acid enhances overall reproduction and sex ratios. Arachidonic acid enrichment of a C. vulgaris diet also enhances fecundity at 1.0 µM and 4.0 µM by 30% to 40% in the presence and absence of pyriproxyfen. This indicates that arachidonic acid is crucial in reproduction regardless of environmental sex determination. Furthermore, the data indicate that P. subcapitata may provide a threshold concentration of arachidonic acid needed for reproduction. Diet-switch experiments from P. subcapitata to C. vulgaris mitigate some, but not all, of arachidonic acid's effects when compared with a C. vulgaris-only diet, suggesting that some arachidonic acid provided by P. subcapitata is retained. In summary, arachidonic acid supplementation increases reproduction and represses pyriproxyfen-induced environmental sex determination in D. magna in restricted diets. A diet rich in arachidonic acid may provide protection from some reproductive toxicants such as the juvenile hormone agonist pyriproxyfen. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;34:527-535. © 2014 SETAC., (© 2014 SETAC.)

Improved bone development and mineralization in broilers have been attributed to the use of 25-hydroxylcholecalceiferol [25(OH)D3] as a dietary supplement. In this study, effects of the in ovo injection of 25(OH)D3 delivered in commercial diluent on 18 d of incubation (doi) on subsequent bone development and mineralization in male and female Ross × Ross 708 broilers were investigated. The variables investigated included bone mineral density and breaking strength, bone ash concentration, and calcium and phosphorus bone ash concentrations. In a single-stage incubator, with 6 treatments on each of the 10 tray levels, a total of 2,400 experimental broiler hatching eggs were evenly and randomly set. Eggs were treatment-injected and transferred to corresponding hatching baskets on 18 doi. Experimental treatment groups were those that received 0.2, 0.6, 1.8, or 5.4 µg of 25(OH)D3 that were delivered in 100 µL of commercial diluent. Noninjected and diluent-injected controls were also included. On 21 doi, chicks were pulled and placed in corresponding floor pens, and on each of d 0, 14, and 28 posthatch (poh), 2 birds of each sex from each pen were randomly selected for necropsy and extraction of both of their tibia bones. Bones from the right leg were subjected to mineral density analysis and those from the left leg were used to determine breaking strength and residual bone ash concentration. Furthermore, ash calcium and phosphorus concentrations on d 14 and 28 poh were determined. There was a treatment × sex × age interaction for bone breaking strength. Bone breaking strength in male birds on d 28 poh was higher in the 0.20, 0.60, and 1.80 µg of 25(OH)D3-injected treatment groups than in the diluent-injected control group. In conclusion, although the in ovo injection of 25(OH)D3 had no positive effect on the bone development of Ross × Ross 708 broilers through d 28 poh compared with noninjected controls, it may provide a benefit to those subjected to an injection of commercial vaccine diluent., (©2014 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Increases in circulating acute phase protein (APP) levels occur in reaction to systemic infections in animals. However, no previous research has been conducted to monitor possible changes in APP levels of birds in response to prelay vaccinations of various live attenuated Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccines in conjunction with their subsequent use as an overlay vaccine during the production period. Serum concentrations of the APP, α1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), were determined on d 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, and 28 after subjecting commercial laying hens to one of the following treatments at 10 wk of age (woa): 1) control (no vaccination); 2) ts-11 strain M. gallisepticum (ts11MG) vaccination; 3) M. gallisepticum-bacterin (MGBac) vaccination; and 4) ts11MG and MGBac combination (ts11MG & MGBac) vaccination. Furthermore, at 45 woa, the birds in half of the units assigned to each treatment group were vaccinated with high-passage F-strain M. gallisepticum (HpFMG). Birds in treatment 1 that were (single control) and were not (double control) vaccinated with HpFMG, and birds in treatments 2, 3, and 4 that were vaccinated with HpFMG were further tested during lay on d 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, and 28 after vaccination. On d 7, 14, and 28 postvaccination at 10 woa, the ts11MG & MGBac, ts11MG, and MGBac group AGP concentrations were not different from one another, but all were higher than those in the control group. Similarly, on d 3, 7, and 14 postvaccination, the single control, and the MGBac ts11MG, and ts11MG & MGBac treatment groups that were later vaccinated with HpFMG at 45 woa, were not different, but all were higher than that in the double control group. In conclusion, elevated circulation AGP concentrations may be used to detect and confirm subclinical infections in pullets up to 28 d after having been vaccinated with ts11MG, MGBac, or their combination. Furthermore, in association with depressed performance, elevated serum AGP concentrations in layers may be used to confirm HpFMG infections up to 28 d after its use as a vaccine., (Poultry Science Association Inc.)