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The day-care setting is an ideal place to encourage children's fruit and vegetable (=F&V) eating. Whereas many studies have focused on the effectiveness to increase F&V consumption, little is known about how to successfully implement effective strategies in daily practice. This study aimed to investigate how day-care professionals evaluated the implementation of a self-chosen strategy to support children's F&V eating. Thirteen day-care locations chose one out of five promising strategies and implemented this strategy for 10–12 weeks. Before (N = 98) and after the study (N = 49), day-care professionals completed a questionnaire to assess their implementation experiences, the impact on children's F&V eating as well as their future intention to use the strategy (on a 5-point scale). Parents (N = 152) completed a short questionnaire at the end of the study to capture their experiences and potential transfer effects to the home situation. Results showed that acceptability, appropriateness, feasibility and sustainability of the strategies were generally satisfactory (scores ≥3.5 on a 5-point scale), but the strategy of cooking scored less favourable on appropriateness and sustained implementation. Children's willingness to taste F&V varieties (3.4 ± 0.7 vs. 2.8 ± 0.8; p < 0.001) and eating pleasure for vegetables (3.4 ± 0.6 vs. 3.1 ± 0.8; p = 0.01) increased, whereas children's F&V consumption did not change (p > 0.14). Parents valued the day-cares’ efforts to encourage children's F&V consumption and a small group (∼20%) experienced positive effects at home. This study shows that implementing a self-chosen F&V strategy at the day-care is acceptable, appropriate and feasible for day-care professionals and has potential to positively impact children's F&V eating behaviour. Future research should investigate the effects of long-term implementation on children's eating behaviour and examine how structural implementation can be further supported.

Infants become increasingly exposed to sweet-tasting foods in their first year of life. However, it is still unclear whether repeated exposure to sweet taste is linked to infants’ sweetness liking during this period. Making use of data from the OPALINE cohort, this study aimed to examine the link between sweetness exposure and sweetness liking during two important periods in early infant feeding: at the start of complementary feeding (3–6 months) and the transition to the family table (10–12 months). Infants’ sweetness exposure was assessed using 7-d food records which were completed by mothers every month (n 312), reporting daily consumption rates of formula/breast milk or complementary food and the type of formula milk and/or complementary foods for each feeding occasion. Infants’ sweetness liking was studied in the laboratory at 3, 6 and 12 months of age by assessing their response to a lactose–water solution and the amount drunk of this solution compared with plain water. Linear regressions and structural equation model assessed associations between exposure to and liking for sweetness at 6 and 12 months. Neither at 6 (n 182) nor at 12 months (n 197) was sweetness exposure associated with sweetness liking. While sweetness liking at 3 months was unrelated to liking at 6 months, the latter predicted sweetness liking at 12 months. These findings demonstrate no association between sweetness exposure at 3 to 12 months and liking at 6 and 12 months despite a sharp increase in sweetness exposure in that period. However, sweetness liking at 6 and 12 months was positively associated.

Infants are increasingly exposed to sweet-tasting foods in their first year of life but it is still unclear whether repeated exposure to those is related to sweetness liking during this period. The study aimed to use the OPALINE cohort to examine the influence of sweetness exposure on liking during two important changes in early infant feeding: at the start of complementary feeding (3-6 months) and the transition to the family table (10-12 months). Infants' sweetness exposure was assessed using monthly 7-day food records completed by mothers (n=312), indicating the number and timing of each feeding of breast/formula milk or complementary foods. Infants' sweetness liking was studied in the laboratory at 3, 6 and 12 months of age. Acceptance of a lactose-sweetened water solution compared to plain water was measured by the amounts ingested and hedonic responses (i.e., facial expression/overall response, rated separately by the experimenter and a parent). Associations between sweetness exposure and sweetness liking at 6 or 12 months were assessed by linear regressions. Neither at 6 (n=182) nor 12 months (n=197) was sweetness exposure associated with sweetness liking. While sweetness liking at 3 months was unrelated to sweetness liking at 6 months, the latter predicted sweetness liking at 12 months. This study indicates a relationship between sweetness liking at 6 and 12 months but cannot prove an association between sweetness exposure and liking at this age. Further research is needed to understand the early variability in sweetness liking.

We explored whether metabolic health is linked to intestinal permeability, using a multi-sugar (MS) permeability test, and whether intestinal permeability is correlated with the leaky gut-related markers (LGM) zonulin, LBP, and sCD14. Metabolically healthy (n = 15) and unhealthy subjects (n = 15) were recruited based on waist circumference, fasting glucose, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Participants underwent an MS permeability test that assessed site-specific permeabilities of the gastroduodenum and small and large intestines. The test was performed with/without an acetylsalicylic acid challenge to measure and correlate the gut permeability, LGM, and metabolic health. At baseline, metabolic health showed no correlation with gut permeability. Significant correlations were found between the metabolic health parameters and LGM. In the acetylsalicylic acid challenged MS permeability test, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol was correlated with the sucralose/erythritol ratio, reflecting the whole intestinal permeability. Correlations between most metabolic health parameters and LGM during the acetylsalicylic acid challenge were less pronounced than at baseline. In both MS permeability tests, no significant correlations were found between LGM (plasma and serum) and gut permeability. Thus, correlations between LGM and metabolic health might not be linked with paracellular gut permeability. Transcellular translocation and/or lipoprotein-related transportation is a more likely mechanism underlying the association between LGM and metabolic health.

For a transition to a circular economy to take place, behavioural change from people who are part of the transition is a key requirement. However, this change often does not occur by itself. For systemic behavioural change, policy instruments that incentivise behaviour supporting circular food systems play a key role. These instruments need to be aligned with the environment in which the behaviour takes place. In this study, we scrutinise a case study with five initiatives on the reduction of food loss and waste (FLW) contributing to a circular food system, to understand how specific, well-targeted combinations of instruments as well as other contextual and personal factors can fuel the transition to a circular economy and the reduction of FLW. All the initiatives are taking place under the umbrella of the Dutch initiative “United against food waste” (STV). We use a behavioural change perspective to assess how initiatives that support circular food systems arise and how they can be further supported. Based on the case-study analysis, we arrive at five common success traits and barriers, and five key needs for upscaling. We conclude that motivated, inspiring frontrunners are of key importance in the initial phase of a transition process. However, once a niche initiative is ready to be scaled up, the enabling environment becomes increasingly important.

In this observational study, children's fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption during the 10AM school break was assessed for two promising strategies: a 5-day-a-week F&V policy and free provision of F&V presented in an attractive fruit bowl. Schools without a school food policy served as reference group. A secondary aim was to explore the feasibility of the two strategies. A total of 569 children aged 6–9 years participated. Children's F&V consumption at school was assessed on two different week days via observations and weighing snack portions. Parents completed an online-questionnaire on their perceptions and experiences with the two strategies. Main outcomes were the proportion of children and frequency of eating F&V, and children's F&V portion sizes. Data were analysed via ANOVA and Chi-Square (p < 0.05). Average F&V consumption differed significantly between the three situations (p < 0.001): 250 g in the fruit bowl situation, 130 g in the 5-day-policy situation and 60 g in the no-policy situation. The proportion of children eating F&V was high for the 5-day-policy (97–98%) and fruit bowl situation (87–97%), whereas this was substantially lower (50–60%; p < 0.001) in the no-policy situation. The majority of parents considered both strategies as feasible. A 5-day-a-week F&V policy seems an effective, feasible and structural strategy to support children's fruit and vegetable consumption at school. The fruit bowl strategy with an additional eating moment may enhance children's intake even further, although additional requirements are needed for structural implementation at school.

Duckweed is considered a promising source of protein for human food products due to its high protein content and environmentally friendly production properties. In order to achieve successful inclusion in the diet, duckweed should be presented to consumers in an acceptable way. This paper explores Western consumers’ perceptions towards duckweed as human food and investigates in what contexts duckweed could be acceptable to consumers who are not used to eating it. In a first interview study (N = 10), consumers generally responded positively towards duckweed as human food, although associations with turbid ponds also did come up. According to the respondents, duckweed belonged to the food category vegetables. So, duckweed was considered to fit best in meals where vegetables and greens are expected. In a larger online survey (N = 669), it was confirmed that consumers had a more positive deliberate evaluation of duckweed and were more likely to accept a meal with duckweed if duckweed was applied in a fitting meal. It was also shown that providing information about nutritional and sustainability benefits increased deliberate evaluation and acceptability for fitting meals, but decreased it for non-fitting meals. Automatic evaluations positively influenced deliberate evaluation and acceptability, supporting the ‘yuck’ effect, but they did not differ between the meal applications. The current paper shows that if applied in a meal context that fits with consumer expectations, under the assumption that sensory properties like taste are satisfactory, there appear no major objections from consumers against the introduction of duckweed as human food at a larger scale.

Texture has an important role in children’s acceptance and rejection of food. However, little is known about\ud individual differences in texture preference. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a child-friendly\ud tool to explore individual differences in texture preferences in school-aged children from six European countries\ud (Austria, Finland, Italy, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom). Six hundred and ten children aged 9–12 years and\ud their parents participated in a cross-sectional study. Children completed the Child Food Texture Preference\ud Questionnaire (CFTPQ) and a Food Neophobia Scale (FNS). The CFTPQ consisted in asking children to choose\ud the preferred item within 17 pairs of pictures of food varying in texture (hard vs. soft or smooth vs. lumpy).\ud Children also evaluated all food items for familiarity. Parents completed the CFTPQ regarding their preferred\ud items, a food frequency questionnaire for their child, and provided background information. For a subset of\ud children, a re-test was done for the CFTPQ and FNS to assess reliability. The results showed that the tool was\ud child-friendly, had high test-retest reliability, and identified country-related differences as well as segments of children with different texture preferences (hard- vs. soft-likers). These segments differed in consumption frequency of healthy foods, and in food neophobia.

This study aimed to investigate the effect of a role modelling intervention on children’s intake of a familiar vegetable. Ninety nine 4–6-year-old children participated at school in a between-subject experiment with three conditions. Two popular Dutch TV idols acted as enthusiastic role models in a video film that was specifically designed for this study. In the convivial eating (CE) condition, children ate raw carrots while they watched the role modelling video for eight sessions (2x/week). Children in the positive restriction and convivial eating (PR + CE) condition were – prior to eight convivial eating sessions – involved in five sessions where they watched the video without eating carrots themselves. The control group ate carrots twice only, and never watched the role modelling video. The main outcome was vegetable intake. Information on demographics and child eating characteristics was collected via a parental questionnaire. A longer-term follow-up was executed at nine months (N = 93). Children’s average carrot intake was 22 ± 24 g per intervention session. There was no increased intake directly after the intervention, but carrot intake in both intervention groups (CE: 45 g; PR + CE: 52 g) was 20–30 g higher at nine months (p < 0.01), whereas intake remained stable for the control group (p = 0.31). About 40% of all children consistently ate (almost) no carrots; higher fussiness and neophobia, and lower vegetable liking typified these non-eaters. So, although the intervention did not immediately increase children’s vegetable intake, it was associated with a higher intake at follow-up. The high numbers of non-eaters points to the need for tailored interventions that encourage non-eaters to consume relatively familiar – but previously rejected – vegetables.

Aims: The palatability of a new paediatric formulation of valaciclovir was assessed in children and their parents: non-inferiority of the new paediatric formulation (test formulation) compared to the reference formulation was investigated. Methods: In vivo palatability testing was performed in a randomized, two-period, multicentre, cross-over study. Children and their parents scored the liking of the new paediatric valaciclovir formulation and the reference formulation on a 100 mm visual analogue scale (VAS). To support formulation development and palatability testing, electronic tongue measurements were applied. Results: The electronic tongue measurement indicated taste-masking capabilities for three different formulations in the developmental phase. A glycerol-based formulation was further tested and compared to the reference formulation prepared out of crushed and suspended tablets. The mean difference (95% CI) in VAS scores between both formulations, as indicated by the children (n = 20), was 2.4 (-8.5, 13) mm, in favour of the new paediatric valaciclovir formulation. The mean (95% CI) difference in VAS scores indicated by the parents (n = 20) was -0.9 (-12, 9.8) mm. Conclusion: The palatability of the new paediatric valaciclovir formulation was considered non-inferior to the reference formulation prepared out of crushed tablets. We were able to optimize the study design and number of children to be included in the palatability testing by using electronic tongue measurements.

Involvement in vegetable preparation is thought to be an effective strategy to increase children’s vegetable intake, but the evidence from experimental studies is scarce. A between-subject experiment was executed in a restaurant setting to investigate the effect of participation in vegetable preparation on 4–6-year-old children’s vegetable intake. After a baseline evening meal, intervention children (N = 50) participated in a vegetable preparation session together with an enthusiastic chef. Control children (N = 51) participated in small groups in a book-reading activity. Subsequently, they ate an evening meal. Follow-up sessions at one month and three months were included to assess possible longer-term effects. Vegetable intake was the main outcome. Secondary outcomes were vegetable choice and involvement in food-related activities at home. For all four sessions, children’s vegetable intake ranged between 50 and 60 g in both conditions (p > 0.05). Participation in carrot preparation did not increase children’s vegetable intake. Involvement in food-related activities at home remained stable in the intervention group, whereas it decreased slightly in the control group (p = 0.01). A cluster analysis identified four distinct vegetable eating patterns over time, suggesting that there are different segments of children. To conclude, participating once in an out-of-home vegetable preparation session with an enthusiastic chef did not influence children’s intake of a familiar vegetable, but it may support their general involvement in food-related activities at home.

Food neophobia (FN) has been extensively explored, especially in children. However, very few studies have compared this food behavior in children from different countries. Considering the clear diversity between European countries in feeding practices and food consumption, it is important to deepen the understanding of cross-national differences in child FN. The aim of this study was to explore and compare FN in five European countries (Finland, Italy, Spain, Sweden and UK) using a food neophobia scale specifically designed for children. Five hundred and twenty-nine children (54% girls) aged 9–12 years were recruited from schools in each country and were asked to complete the Italian Child Food Neophobia Scale (ICFNS, Laureati, Bergamaschi et al., 2015), which was translated into each respective language. Parents (n ≈ 300) completed a food consumption frequency questionnaire for their child, and provided background information. Reliability of the tool was assessed through internal consistency and temporal stability. Total internal consistency was 0.76. When calculated by country, internal consistency was satisfactory (Cronbach’s alpha >0.70) for all countries. FN was negatively associated to fruit and vegetable consumption, liking of wholegrain biscuits, and timing of introduction of semi-solid food. There were small but significant cross-national differences in FN with British and Swedish children being the most neophobic and significantly higher in FN than Finnish children, who were the most neophilic. Results indicate that the tool can be successfully used in all the tested countries with children in the age range of 9–12 years. The tool can be useful to measure the effects of interventions aiming at changing food behaviors, such as reducing FN, among children.

Children's breakfast habits are suboptimal. A novel school-based education programme was developed and tested with the aim of improving children's attitude, knowledge and breakfast quality. A pre- and post-test design was used with four conditions: group-based education, role modelling, tailored feedback with goal setting, and a combination of these three delivery modes. Two hundred eighty children from disadvantaged communities (9.3 ± 0.8 years) participated in three lessons at school over a two-month period. Children's attitude, knowledge and breakfast behaviour were evaluated by a pre- and post-questionnaire completed by the children. A follow-up measure was executed at 24 weeks. The data were analysed by repeated measures ANOVA. At baseline, 90% of the children ate breakfast on the measurement day; 60–76% of the children ate breakfast daily. Between pre- and post-test, a significant time effect was found for children's attitude, self-efficacy, knowledge and behaviour (all p < 0.05). Children in the feedback condition improved most favourably: correct classification of breakfast products increased by 10 products (out of 44) and breakfast quality score improved by 25 points (on a 100-point scale). The feedback condition also resulted in positive changes in the home setting. The follow-up test showed a decline in children's knowledge and their breakfast quality across conditions. To conclude, this study showed that a three-lesson school programme based on individual feedback and goal setting is most effective for changing knowledge on breakfasting and self-reported breakfast quality among children aged 8–10 years living in disadvantaged neighbourhoods. To maintain effectiveness, longer-term programmes embedded in the school curriculum are needed to enhance breakfast quality. Future research should explore the optimal duration and intensity of such programmes and should incorporate the topic of suitable portion sizes.

Browning is considered to be the most important quality-limiting factor in green beans for both the fresh and cut bean markets. For the fresh market, we determined the duration at which green beans can be stored at optimal and suboptimal temperatures while retaining an acceptable quality. Furthermore we assessed the effects of bean surface moisture and a decontaminating washing step on bean browning during storage. For cut bean market, we determined the duration green beans can be stored at 3°C prior to cutting and packaging and still retain an acceptable quality after a 7 day shelf life period. The experiments were carried out using both the fresh market cultivar ‘Domino’ and the cut market cultivar ‘Stanley’. Besides browning, the occurrence of loss of firmness limited the quality of fresh beans considerably. Both cultivars were able to cope with 2 days storage at 3 - 9°C while retaining an acceptable quality. Despite ‘Domino’ having a better quality score than ‘Stanley’, both cultivars obtained an acceptable score. For ‘Domino’ loss of firmness was the most important factor limiting quality, while in ‘Stanley’ browning was more limiting. Both cultivars could not withstand 4 days of storage without loss of quality. Bean surface moisture due to condensation or washing limited browning, but increased loss of firmness. Decontaminating the beans did not influence the quality of fresh green beans. Neither washing, condensation or decontamination affected the percentage of intact beans. Concerning cut and packaged beans, the maximum storage time of green beans at 3°C prior to cutting and packing, followed by a shelf life of 3 days at 4°C plus 4 days at 7°C, was determined. ‘Domino’ could be stored 2 days at a maximum with an acceptable loss of quality; ‘Stanley’ resisted 4 days storage without quality loss and 7 days with an acceptable quality loss according to the standards of Bakker Barendrecht.

ObjectiveBreast-feeding is thought to facilitate young children’s acceptance of new foods, including vegetables, but the evidence for this relationship appears inconsistent across studies. Increasing children’s vegetable intake remains challenging; therefore the present study aimed to investigate whether breast-feeding duration predicts vegetable intake in 2–6-year-old children.DesignActual vegetable intake was measured in studies across three European countries. General linear model analyses with breast-feeding duration, sex and age of the child and maternal education as variables were used to predict children’s vegetable intake per country. Additionally, the relationships between child eating behaviour characteristics (asked through the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire) and vegetable intake were investigated via Pearson correlations.SettingDaycare centres, schools and home settings in Denmark, Greece and the Netherlands.SubjectsChildren aged 2–6 years (n750).ResultsBreast-feeding duration was positively associated with children’s vegetable intake at 2–6 years old in Denmark (PPP=0·17). Age of the child, maternal education and sex of the child did not predict vegetable intake in our sample. All countries showed an inverse relationship between food neophobia and children’s vegetable intake and a positive relationship between vegetable liking and intake.ConclusionsThe present study found that breast-feeding duration is a predictor of later vegetable intake, but that current child eating behaviour characteristics, such as vegetable liking, food neophobia and enjoyment of food, also influence vegetable intake. Besides encouragement of breast-feeding duration, strategies that support vegetable liking and food enjoyment and decrease food neophobia are needed to support young children’s vegetable intake.

Children's failure to eat enough vegetables highlights the need for effective interventions encouraging this behaviour. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of repeated exposure to three a priori unfamiliar vegetables, each prepared in two ways, on children's vegetable acceptance in a childcare setting. Two hundred fifty children (mean age 25 months; 57% boys) participated in a pre-test and a post-test, where they were offered pumpkin, courgette, and white radish. The intervention group (N = 125) participated in a 5-month exposure period, where they were exposed repeatedly (∼12x) to the vegetables: pumpkin blanched and as a cracker spread; courgette blanched and as soup; white radish raw and as a cracker spread. The control group (N = 125) maintained their normal routine. Mixed model analyses were used to analyse intake data and Chi-square analyses for willingness to taste. At pre-test, children ate about 20 g of pumpkin and courgette, whereas white radish intake was approximately 10 g. There was a significant positive effect of the intervention for pumpkin (+15 g; p < 0.001) and white radish (+16 g; p = 0.01). Results for willingness to taste were in the same direction. There was no repeated exposure effect for courgette (p = 0.54); this may have been due to its less distinct taste profile or familiarity with boiled courgette. From our findings, we conclude that repeated exposure to multiple unfamiliar vegetable tastes within the daily routine of a childcare setting is effective in improving children's willingness to taste and intake of some of these vegetables. However, repeated exposure may not be sufficient for more familiar or blander tasting vegetables. This implies that one size does not fit all and that additional strategies are needed to increase children's intake of these vegetables.

Objective: To identify parental child-feeding strategies that may increase children’s fruit or vegetable intake, since the relationship between these strategies and children’s intake has never been investigated for fruit and vegetables as two separate food groups. Design: A survey study, where parents provided information about their practices in relation to feeding their children and about their own and their children’s fruit and vegetable intake. Children completed a preference questionnaire about fruit and vegetables. To find underlying parental child-feeding strategies, factor analysis was applied to parents’ practices in relation to fruit and vegetables separately. Regression analysis was used to predict the effect of these strategies on children’s fruit and vegetable intake. The impact of the strategies was further analysed by estimating children’s intake based on the frequency of use of specific strategies. Setting: The study was conducted at three primary schools in The Netherlands. Subjects: A total of 259 children between 4 and 12 years old and their parents (n 242). Results: Parents used different strategies for fruit as compared with vegetables. The vegetable-eating context was more negative than the fruit-eating context. Parental intake and presenting the children with choice were positive predictors of children’s intake of both fruit and vegetables. The intake difference based on frequency of use of the strategy ‘Choice’ was 40 g/d for vegetables and 72 g/d for fruit (P , 0?001). Conclusions: Future interventions should focus on presenting children with choice during fruit- and vegetable-eating situations, since this is a powerful strategy to stimulate children’s fruit and vegetable intake.

Background: Children's vegetable consumption is below recommended amounts. According to self-determination theory, stimulating children's feelings of autonomy by offering a choice of vegetables may be a valuable strategy to increase their vegetable liking and consumption. The effect of choice-offering on children's vegetable liking and consumption has, to our knowledge, not yet been studied. Objective: The objective was to investigate whether having a choice between 2 vegetables enhances children's vegetable liking and consumption. Design: Three hundred three children (age: 4–6 y) were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 3 dinner conditions in a restaurant setting. Two similarly liked vegetables were presented, after which the child had no choice, a premeal choice, or an at-meal choice. Subsequently, the dinner was consumed with one parent present. Comparisons between the 3 conditions regarding children's meal experience, vegetable liking, and vegetable consumption were made by using analysis of variance and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Results: Children's vegetable consumption did not differ (P = 0.54) between the conditions as follows: 56 ± 45 g in the no-choice condition, 51 ± 46 g in the premeal-choice condition, and 49 ± 47 g in the at-meal-choice condition. In the no-choice condition, high-reactant children (who are more sensitive to psychological, persuasive pressure) consumed fewer vegetables (45 ± 42 g) than did low-reactant children (73 ± 43 g; P = 0.04). Vegetable liking was similar in all 3 conditions (P = 0.43). Children appreciated being able to choose in the premeal-choice condition. Conclusions: A premeal choice between 2 vegetables was appreciated by the children but did not increase their vegetable liking and consumption. The no-choice condition decreased vegetable consumption in high-reactant children. Future research should investigate the effects of choice-offering in the long term and in more familiar eating settings. This trial was registered at controlled-trials.com as ISRCTN03035138

Our pilot study sought to investigate whether facial expressions are a suitable and accurate method to assess food preferences in school-aged children. Six children, aged 5–13 years, tasted seven stimuli in randomized order: apple, sauerkraut, and beetroot juice, skimmed milk, asparagus solution, a bitter and a sweet solution. Their preferences were assessed using a traditional rank order procedure. Each tasting was video-recorded to capture facial expressions. The first six seconds after tasting were coded using a selection of FACS-system Action Units (AUs). Data were analysed by frequency count, Pearson correlations and Chi-Square test. For disliked liquids, the majority of the AUs displayed were negative, whereas for neutral and liked liquids the number of positive and negative AUs was similar. On the basis of our results, we conclude that facial expressions are suitable to measure dislike, but not suitable to measure various gradients of food acceptance in children aged 5–13 years.

This study assessed the effectiveness of the Dutch school programme Taste Lessons with and without additional experiential learning activities on children's willingness to taste unfamiliar vegetables. Thirty-three primary schools (877 children in grades 6-7 with a mean age of 10.3 years) participated in Taste Lessons Vegetable Menu (TLVM, lessons and extra activities), Taste Lessons (TL, lessons), or a control group. A baseline and follow-up measurement was used to assess for each child: number of four familiar and four unfamiliar vegetables tasted, quantity tasted, choice of vegetable of which to eat more, and number of vegetables willing to taste again later. Furthermore, children filled out a questionnaire on daily vegetable intake and food neophobia. Multilevel and Cox regression analyses were conducted to compare changes in the outcome measures between the three study groups. No significant intervention effects were found on willingness to taste unfamiliar vegetables. Neither were effects found on familiar vegetables, except for number of familiar vegetables tasted (p

The effect of a repeated monotonous exposure on ad libitum intake, pleasantness and boredom in elderly people in a real life situation is unclear. We therefore investigated the effects of repeated exposure to ad libitum intake of three orange-based drinks on boredom and acceptance in young and elderly people. Young (n=32) and elderly women (n=36) participated in a randomized within subjects cross over trial with three intervention periods of 12 days each followed by a 2-day wash out period. During each intervention period, the participants received 1 L of one type of drink per day. The three drinks varied in sweetness intensity. Intake was measured by weighing the returned packets and pleasantness, boredom and sweetness were rated on a 10-point scale. For the young women, mean consumption of the three drinks (p

Conditioning is an important mechanism for establishing food preferences. Although the basic principles for conditioning are well-known, less is known about the conditions under which this type of learning takes place. This paper aims to add to the knowledge of the essential conditions for flavour–nutrient learning with vegetable flavours. We describe a study which aimed to investigate whether flavour–nutrient learning is effective in increasing 7–8-year-old children's preference for vegetables. Their preference for, and consumption of, two different vegetable drinks was measured before and after a 14-day-conditioning period, using a within-subject design. Flavour–nutrient learning could not occur, due to insufficient consumption during the conditioning period: 2.4 g (S.D. = 5.6) for the high energy (HE) drink and 3.0 g (S.D. = 9.3) for the low energy (LE) drink. The high taste intensity may have caused the insufficient consumption. We hypothesize that the pure taste of vegetables in itself is not acceptable. Mixing vegetables with other foods may lead to gradual acceptance of vegetables through flavour–flavour and flavour–nutrient learning. Future flavour–nutrient learning studies with children should use less intense vegetable flavours.

Digestible carbohydrates are one of the main sources of dietary energy in infancy and childhood and are essential for growth and development. The aim of this narrative review is to outline the intakes of digestible carbohydrates and their role in health and disease, including the development of food preferences, as well the consequences of excess carbohydrate. Key experts in these fields provided up-to-date reviews of the literature. A search of available information on dietary intakes of children below the age of 4 years was conducted from 1985 up to 2010. Articles and reports including information about sugars and/or starch intakes were selected. A number of factors limit the ability to obtain an overall picture of carbohydrate intakes and food sources in this age group. These include small numbers of intake studies, differing approaches to analysing carbohydrate, a variety of terms used to describe sugars intakes and a dearth of information about starch intakes. Data suggest that sweet taste is preferred in infancy and later food choices. There are few established adverse consequences of high intakes of digestible carbohydrate for young children. The greatest evidence is for dental caries, although this is influenced by high intake frequency and poor oral hygiene. Evidence for detrimental effects on nutrient dilution, obesity, diabetes or cognition is limited. In infants, minimum carbohydrate (mainly lactose) intake should be 40% of total energy, gradually increasing to 55% energy by the age of 2 years.European Journal of Clinical Nutrition advance online publication, 4 April 2012; doi:10.1038/ejcn.2012.27. ispartof: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition vol:66 issue:7 pages:765-779 ispartof: location:England status: published

This study aimed to investigate how different preparation methods influence children’s liking for vegetables. Participants were children from three age groups (4–6 years N = 46; 7–8 years N = 25; 11–12 years N = 23) and young adults (18–25 years N = 22). The participants tasted and ranked six preparation methods for carrots and French beans: mashed, steamed, boiled, stir-fried, grilled and deep-fried. In addition, the different vegetable preparations were rated on 15 attributes. All participants preferred boiled and steamed vegetables over the other preparations (p < 0.05). Boiled and stir-fried were the most familiar preparation methods for both vegetables. Vegetable liking was positively related to a uniform surface and the typical vegetable taste, and moderately related to crunchiness, whereas brown colouring and a granular texture were negatively related to vegetable liking. On the basis of these results, we conclude that children’s vegetable liking is influenced by a complex mixture of a uniform appearance, easily controllable textures and a typical, familiar vegetable taste.

This study aimed to investigate how different preparation methods influence children’s liking for vegetables. Participants were children from three age groups (4–6 years N = 46; 7–8 years N = 25; 11–12 years N = 23) and young adults (18–25 years N = 22). The participants tasted and ranked six preparation methods for carrots and French beans: mashed, steamed, boiled, stir-fried, grilled and deep-fried. In addition, the different vegetable preparations were rated on 15 attributes. All participants preferred boiled and steamed vegetables over the other preparations (p < 0.05). Boiled and stir-fried were the most familiar preparation methods for both vegetables. Vegetable liking was positively related to a uniform surface and the typical vegetable taste, and moderately related to crunchiness, whereas brown colouring and a granular texture were negatively related to vegetable liking. On the basis of these results, we conclude that children’s vegetable liking is influenced by a complex mixture of a uniform appearance, easily controllable textures and a typical, familiar vegetable taste.

The objective of the pilot study Face-Express was to investigate if facial expressions are an objective and suitable method to assess food preferences in school-aged children. Six children, aged 4–13 years, participated in the study. They tasted seven liquids in randomised order: apple, sauerkraut and beet juice, skimmed milk, asparagus solution and a bitter and sweet solution. A traditional rank-order procedure with three smiley faces was used to assess children's preference. Video recording was done to capture children's facial expressions. The first 6 s after tasting were coded using a selection of Action Units (AUs) of the FACS system (Ekman & Friesen, 1978). Data were analysed by frequency count, correlations and Chi-Square test. A total of 74 negative, 31 positive and 16 neutral AUs (total 121) were displayed by the children. A significant correlation was found between preference and the sum of negative facial AUs (r=−0.44; p Reference Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1978). Facial Action Coding System (FACS): Manual & investigator's guide. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologist Press.