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This report follows up on the report published in the SESS Report 2018 (Christiansen et al. 2019). Since 2018, the Norwegian Environment Agency has released the Climate in Svalbard 2100 report summarizing observed trends in permafrost conditions over the period of field measurements and a forecast for the future, based on recent climate and permafrost modelling (Hanssen-Bauer et al. 2019). It is well established that the terrestrial cryosphere in Svalbard has changed since modern permafrost monitoring efforts began in the late 1990s. In central Svalbard in the Adventdalen area, ground temperatures have risen by as much as 0.15°C per year (10 m depth) and the thickness of the seasonally-unfrozen active layer increased by 0.6 cm per year since 2000 in sediments and 1.6 cm/year in bedrock (Hanssen-Bauer et al. 2019), while in Ny-Ålesund ground temperatures increased by 0.18°C/year and the thickness of active layer increased by 5 cm/year (Boike et al. 2018). Modern monitoring techniques mean that it is relatively easy to quantify permafrost change in terms of temperature. The visible effects of warming permafrost are, however, more ambiguous. A prolonged thaw season is anticipated to result in a thicker active layer, and increased rainfall intensity can result in more frequent landslides. The strength of frozen soil decreases when warming and permafrost change may expectedly result in infrastructure problems in cases where climate change was not considered during the initial design. The aims of this part of the State of Environmental Science in Svalbard reporting are to: (1) provide an overview of permafrost data collected during the 2017-2018 hydrological year (1 September 2017 – 31 August 2018), (2) contrast these results with the 2016-2017 hydrological year as presented in Christiansen et al. (2019), (3) summarise developments in permafrost monitoring in Svalbard, and (4) provide recommendations for future permafrost investigations. Understanding the spatial distribu

2020 Australian Veterinary Association Background: Hendra virus (HeV) is endemic in Australian flying foxes, posing a threat to equine and human health. Equine vaccination remains the most effective risk mitigation strategy. Many horses remain unvaccinated - even in higher-risk regions. Debate surrounding the vaccine's use is characterised by conflicting perspectives, misunderstanding and mistrust. Private veterinary practitioners are critical to early identification of public health risk through recognition, sampling and management of suspect-equine-HeV-cases. However, managing such cases can be burdensome, with some veterinarians opting not to attend unvaccinated horses or to abandon equine practice because of risk posed by HeV disease and liability. Objective: Ascertain the perspectives of informed citizens on what obligations (if any) private veterinarians have to attend unvaccinated horses with HeV or HeV-like disease. Methods: Three citizens' juries were tasked with considering approaches to managing HeV risk in Australia, including (reported here) roles and obligations of private veterinarians in responding to HeV-suspect-cases. Results: Jurors acknowledged that HeV management posed an important challenge for private veterinarians. A clear majority (27 of 31 jurors) voted that veterinarians should not be obliged to attend unvaccinated horses. All recognised that greater support for veterinarians should be a priority. Conclusions: When informed of HeV risks and strategies for control and management, citizens appreciated the need to support veterinarians performing this critical 'One Health' role for public benefit. The current governance framework within which zoonotic disease recognition and response operates limits the contingency and scope for increasing support and efficacy of these important veterinary public health practices.

This report is the product of international collaboration of several permafrost researchers working in Svalbard. The report aims to provide an overview of ground thermal conditions and active-layer thickness as they are recorded at five sites during the 2016/2017 hydrological year from 1 September 2016 to 31 August 2017 in Svalbard. We report on this period, as this is when observation variables are available from all sites. This provides the basis for comparison of spatial variations in permafrost thermal conditions and active layer thickness in Svalbard. For earlier summaries of permafrost conditions on Svalbard see Humlum et al. (2003) and Christiansen et al. (2010). The specific objectives of this report are to: (1) introduce the study area and permafrost in Svalbard; (2) describe instrumentation and operation at each of the five sites; (3) characterize the ground thermal regime and present the active-layer thickness from the last 20162017 hydrological year; (4) provide an overall analysis of the ground-thermal observations with a focus on the implications of changing permafrost on other parts of the cryosphere relevant for the SIOS network; (5) ensure access to the reported data through the Global Terrestrial Network on Permafrost (GTN-P) adhering to the SIOS Data policy and (6) point to potential avenues and geographic locations for future permafrost observation needs in Svalbard. This report builds on the IPY 2007-2008 snapshot of the permafrost thermal state and active layer thickness in Svalbard (Christiansen et al., 2010), but now provides ground temperatures from more areas in Svalbard thanks to the international collaboration. The report may serve as a baseline for future regional observation programs and collaborative activities within the SIOS network.

A One Health approach holds great promise for attenuating the risk and burdens of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) in both human and animal populations. Because the course and costs of EID outbreaks are difficult to predict, One Health policies must deal with scientific uncertainty, whilst addressing the political, economic and ethical dimensions of communication and intervention strategies. Drawing on the outcomes of parallel Delphi surveys conducted with policymakers in Singapore and Australia, we explore the normative dimensions of two different precautionary approaches to EID decision-making-which we call regimes of risk management and organizing uncertainty, respectively. The imperative to act cautiously can be seen as either an epistemic rule or as a decision rule, which has implications for how EID uncertainty is managed. The normative features of each regime, and their implications for One Health approaches to infectious disease risks and outbreaks, are described. As One Health attempts to move upstream to prevent rather than react to emergence of EIDs in humans, we show how the approaches to uncertainty, taken by experts and decision-makers, and their choices about the content and quality of evidence, have implications for who pays the price of precaution, and, thereby, social and global justice.

Ninety-three giant Queensland grouper, Epinephelus lanceolatus (Bloch), were found dead in Queensland, Australia, from 2007 to 2011. Most dead fish occurred in northern Queensland, with a peak of mortalities in Cairns in June 2008. In 2009, sick wild fish including giant sea catfish, Arius thalassinus (Ruppell), and javelin grunter, Pomadasys kaakan (Cuvier), also occurred in Cairns. In 2009 and 2010, two disease epizootics involving wild stingrays occurred at Sea World marine aquarium. Necropsy, histopathology, bacteriology and PCR determined that the cause of deaths of 12 giant Queensland grouper, three wild fish, six estuary rays, Dasyatis fluviorum (Ogilby), one mangrove whipray, Himantura granulata (Macleay), and one eastern shovelnose ray, Aptychotrema rostrata (Shaw), was Streptococcus agalactiae septicaemia. Biochemical testing of 34 S.agalactiae isolates from giant Queensland grouper, wild fish and stingrays showed all had identical biochemical profiles. The 16S rRNA gene sequences of isolates confirmed all isolates were S.agalactiae; genotyping of selected S.agalactiae isolates showed the isolates from giant Queensland grouper were serotype Ib, whereas isolates from wild fish and stingrays closely resembled serotype II. This is the first report of S.agalactiae from wild giant Queensland grouper and other wild tropical fish and stingray species in Queensland, Australia.

Aims: In order to improve the future reliability of surveillance for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), an Australia/New Zealand-wide survey was conducted to examine methods of laboratory diagnosis in use, identify deficiencies in practice and burden of CDI. Methods: An online survey of 48 Australian and New Zealand microbiology laboratories (private and public) was conducted in late 2009 and 2010 to collect information about methods of detection in use and collective testing experience from July 2008 to June 2009. Results: The overall prevalence (proportion positive of all faecal specimens tested) of C. difficile in 123 574 tested samples was 5.3%. The incidence rate across jurisdictions varied between 18.0 per 100 000 population in Victoria to 35.8 per 100 000 population in Tasmania, with a mean for Australia of 25.6 per 100 000 population. The incidence rate in New Zealand was 21.5 per 100 000 population. Most laboratories (60%) screened stools with an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) or equivalent that detected both toxins A and B. Conclusions: The low overall rates reported here may reflect the lack of sensitivity of diagnostic testing procedures currently used inAustralia andNewZealand to detect C. difficile.Recommendations for best practice in diagnosis of C. difficile were developed by the Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases (ASID) C. difficile working party and later endorsed by ASID.

Nonserotypeable pneumococci (NSP) are commonly carried by Australian Indigenous children in remote communities. The purpose of this study was to characterize carriage isolates of NSP from Indigenous children vaccinated with the seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) and to use these data to guide decisions on reporting of NSP. A total of 182 NSP were characterized by BOX typing, antibiogram analysis, and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of common BOX types. NSP positive for the wzg capsule gene were analyzed by a multiplex PCR-based reverse line blot hybridization assay (mPCR/RLB-H) targeting capsule genes to determine the serotype. Among 182 NSP, 49 BOX types were identified. MLST of 10 representative isolates found 7 STs, including ST448 (which accounted for 11% of NSP). Non-penicillin susceptibility was evident in 51% of the isolates. Pneumococcal wzg sequences were detected in only 23 (13%) NSP, including 10 that contained an ∼1.2-kb insert in the region. mPCR/RLB-H identified serotype 14 wzy sequences in all 10 NSP, and 1 also contained a serotype 3-specific wze sequence. Among the remaining 13 wzg-positive NSP, few belonged to the serotypes represented in PCV7. It appears that most NSP identified in Australian Indigenous children are from a true nonencapsulated lineage. Few NSP represented serotypes in PCV7 that suppress capsular expression. High rates of carriage and penicillin resistance and the occasional presence of capsule genes suggest a role for NSP in the maintenance and survival of capsulated pneumococci. To avoid the inflation of pneumococcal carriage and antibiotic resistance rates, in clinical trials, we recommend separate reporting of rates of capsular strains and NSP and the exclusion of data for NSP from primary analyses.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of a reduced-dose 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) primary series followed by a 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (23vPPS) booster on nasopharyngeal (NP) pneumococcal carriage. For this purpose, Fijian infants aged 6 weeks were randomized to receive 0, 1, 2, or 3 PCV doses. Within each group, half received 23vPPS at 12 months. NP swabs were taken at 6, 9, 12, and 17 months and were cultured for Streptococcus pneumoniae. Isolates were serotyped by multiplex PCR and a reverse line blot assay. There were no significant differences in PCV vaccine type (VT) carriage between the 3- and 2-dose groups at 12 months. NP VT carriage was significantly higher (P, <0.01) in the unvaccinated group than in the 3-dose group at the age of 9 months. There appeared to be a PCV dose effect in the cumulative proportion of infants carrying the VT, with less VT carriage occurring with more doses of PCV. Non-PCV serotype (NVT) carriage rates were similar for all PCV groups. When groups were pooled by receipt or nonreceipt of 23vPPS at 12 months, there were no differences in pneumococcal, VT, or NVT carriage rates between the 2 groups at the age of 17 months. In conclusion, there appeared to be a PCV dose effect on VT carriage, with less VT carriage occurring with more doses of PCV. By the age of 17 months, NVT carriage rates were similar for all groups. 23vPPS had no impact on carriage, despite the substantial boosts in antibody levels.

Influenza outbreaks during mass gatherings have been rarely described, and detailed virologic assessment is lacking. An influenza outbreak occurred during World Youth Day in Sydney, Australia, July 2008 (WYD2008). We assessed epidemiologic data and respiratory samples collected from attendees who sought treatment for influenza-like illness at emergency clinics in Sydney during this outbreak. Isolated influenza viruses were compared with seasonal influenza viruses from the 2008 influenza season. From 100 infected attendees, numerous strains were identified: oseltamivir-resistant influenza A (H1N1) viruses, oseltamivir-sensitive influenza A (H1N1) viruses, influenza A (H3N2) viruses, and strains from both influenza B lineages (B/Florida/4/2006-like and B/Malaysia/2506/2004-like). Novel viruses were introduced, and pre-WYD2008 seasonal viruses were amplified. Viruses isolated at mass gatherings can have substantial, complex, and unpredictable effects on community influenza activity. Greater flexibility by public health authorities and hospitals is required to appropriately manage and contain these outbreaks.

We observed an outbreak of necrotizing fasciitis associated with Streptococcus agalactiae infection in a group of juvenile saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus). We undertook screening of crocodiles and the environment to clarify the source of the outbreak and evaluated the isolates cultured from post-mortem specimens with molecular methods to assess clonality and the presence of known group B streptococcal virulence determinants. The isolates were indistinguishable by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. They were a typical serotype Ia strain with the Cα-like protein gene, epsilon (or alp1), the mobile genetic elements IS 381 IS Sag1 and IS Sag2, and belonged to multi-locus sequence type (ST) 23. All of these characteristics suggest they were probably of human origin. We review the medical and veterinary literature relating to S. agalactiae necrotizing fasciitis, epidemiology and virulence determinants.