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Il saggio è incentrato sulla principale terminologia greca del latte e mira a sottolineare al contempo le implicazioni storico-culturali sul versante antropologico e fisiologico della lattazione e dell'allattamento, soprattutto nel rapporto tra madre e figlio, o tra nutrice e lattante. Sono presenti riferimenti agli usi alimentari e terapeutici.

Lo studio prende in considerazione l’alto numero di occorrenze del termine ὁδός e di alcuni suoi composti (tra cui ad esempio δίοδος e περίοδος) presenti nel Corpus ippocratico, e in particolare in un gruppo di trattati (Generazione/Natura del bambino; libro IV delle Malattie; libro I delle Malattie delle donne; Ghiandole) che presentano comuni caratteristiche dal punto di vista teorico, lessicale e delle forme dell’espressione del pensiero medico scientifico. L’uso di detta terminologia per definire le “vie del corpo umano” e i fluidi che vi scorrono (in primo luogo sangue e sperma) sembra rimandare ad una concezione dell’anatomia e della fisiologia umana comune ai trattati considerati.

Il saggio indaga in una prospettiva storico-linguistica e antropologica la natura del rapporto di cuginanza nella civiltà greca, proponendo confronti con la terminologia e la relativa concezione nel mondo latino. Al centro dell'indagine, condotta principalmente per un pubblico di non specialisti, c'è un ragionamento sulle occorrenze più antiche del termine greco "anepsiòs", esaminate nel loro contesto specifico all'interno, soprattutto, dei poemi omerici. Emerge la particolare natura del rapporto di cuginanza (termine attestato in greco nella forma anepsiòtes) secondo i Greci, che ne fa, specie nel caso di cugini primi, una fattispecie di parenti legati da uno stretto reciproco legame che implica solidarietà e partecipazione affettiva, morale e giuridica, e ciò in nome non solo della comune partecipazione alle vicende di uno stesso ghènos, ma anche di precisi interessi economici e giuridici che pertengono al relativo patrimonio familiare.

Il saggio rappresenta la prosecuzione delle ultime ricerche di Claude Calame, grecista di fama mondiale: dopo il Prometeo genetista (Sellerio, Palermo 2016, ed. or. Paris 2011), adesso lo studioso svizzero propone una riflessione sui rapporti tra l’essere umano e il suo ambiente, maturata sulla base del serrato confronto tra l’idea originaria, greca, di physis e la nozione di ‘natura’ per come essa si è sviluppata a partire dal pensiero illuministico e deterministico. Dei cinque capitoli in cui il saggio è complessivamente strutturato, il primo (dal titolo En Grèce ancienne : l’homme et son milieu) ricostruisce con accuratezza storico-filologica e acume critico il concetto greco di physis, rappresentandolo come un processo dinamico, non inscrivibile nei limiti dell’idea moderna di ‘natura’, vista al contrario sempre di più come il luogo dell’oggettivazione e dello sfruttamento, da parte dell’uomo, dell’ambiente che lo circonda. Il capitolo II (titolo: Des philosophes des Lumières aux anthropologues modernes) prosegue sulla linea del primo, in quanto l’Autore vi ripercorre la storia della nascita in età moderna, dall’Illuminismo sino agli antropologi contemporanei di scuola strutturalista, del concetto di ‘cultura’ come contrapposto alla natura-oggetto. Il capitolo III (intitolato Au-delà des déterminismes anthropologiques : perméabilités) propone una riflessione fondante di una nuova concezione del rapporto tra uomo e ambiente, e natura e cultura, che si basi sull’idea di interrelazione e di permeabilità tra quelli che sinora sono stati intesi come due ambiti distinti. Nel corso del capitolo IV (titolo: L’homme et son environnement : relations interactives) si pongono le basi per ripensare l’idea di natura nei termini del concetto antico di physis. In conseguenza del complessivo ripensamento (insieme storico, filologico e epistemologico) dell’intera questione ambientale, nel quinto e ultimo capitolo (Pour une construction écosocialiste de l’homme et de son milieu) l’A. argomenta la necessità di ‘ricostruire’ il rapporto tra uomo e ambiente in termini alternativi rispetto al sistema tradizionale, realizzando sul piano culturale e politico l’auspicata transizione ecosocialista e ecopoietica. The essay represents the continuation of the latest research by Claude Calame, a world-famous Greek scholar: after the geneticist Prometheus (Sellerio, Palermo 2016, or. Paris 2011), now the Swiss scholar proposes a reflection on the relationship between human beings and its environment, matured on the basis of the close comparison between the original Greek idea of ​​physis and the notion of 'nature' as it developed from Enlightenment and deterministic thought. Of the five chapters in which the essay is structured as a whole, the first (entitled En Grèce ancienne: l'homme et son milieu) reconstructs the Greek concept of physis with historical-philological accuracy and critical acumen, representing it as a dynamic, non-inscribable process within the limits of the modern idea of ​​'nature', seen on the contrary more and more as the place of objectification and exploitation by man of the environment that surrounds him. Chapter II (title: Des philosophes des Lumières aux anthropologues modernes) continues on the line of the first, as the author traces the history of birth in the modern age, from the Enlightenment to the contemporary anthropologists of the structuralist school, of the concept of ' culture 'as opposed to nature-object. Chapter III (entitled Au-delà des déterminismes anthropologiques: perméabilités) proposes a fundamental reflection of a new conception of the relationship between man and environment, and nature and culture, which is based on the idea of ​​interrelation and permeability between those that have hitherto been were intended as two distinct areas. During chapter IV (title: L'homme et son environnement: relations interactives) the foundations are laid for rethinking the idea of ​​nature in terms of the ancient concept of physis. As a result of the overall rethinking (both historical, philological and epistemological) of the entire environmental question, in the fifth and last chapter (Pour une construction écosocialiste de l'homme et de son milieu) the A. argues the need to 'reconstruct' the relationship between man and the environment in alternative terms to the traditional system, achieving the desired ecosocialist and ecopoietic transition on a cultural and political level.

Complessivamente 12 sono i saggi che compongono questa raccolta dedicata alla riflessione antica e moderna sulla crescita e sviluppo delle forme di vita. Ogni saggio rappresenta un vero e proprio viaggio che attraversa diverse regioni del sapere: i classici antichi, greci e latini, sono in effetti quantitativamente predominanti, e questo a ragione dei prevalenti interessi scientifici dei curatori, i quali però si sono ben guardati dall’isolare il ‘classico’ nella sua idiosincratica prospettiva ante litteram, ma hanno cercato e trovato la collaborazione con altri settori della ricerca scientifica. Il che si traduce nella partecipazione al progetto editoriale e scientifico anche di antropologi del mondo antico, di biologi e genetisti, di filosofi e storici del pensiero filosofico e scientifico. Altogether 12 are the essays that make up this collection dedicated to ancient and modern reflection on the growth and development of forms of life. Each essay represents a real journey that crosses different regions of knowledge: the ancient Greek and Latin classics are in quantitatively predominant effects, and this due to the prevalent ones scientific interests of the curators, who, however, have been careful not to isolate the 'classic' in its idiosyncratic perspective ante litteram, but have sought and found collaboration with other sectors of scientific research. This translates into the participation in the editorial and scientific project of anthropologists of the ancient world, biologists and geneticists, of philosophers and historians of philosophical and scientific thought.

Dopo un inquadramento terminologico atto a presentare le più comuni radici che esprimono in greco antico i concetti di crescita e di sviluppo del vivente, l’attenzione è rivolta alle modalità con cui in testi di varia natura e datazione (da Omero sino al Corpus ippocratico) si descrive la crescita dell’essere umano a partire dal costante confronto con il mondo vegetale, in modo che dal configurarsi delle teorie possano risaltare le più o meno implicite mentalità. Attraverso il massiccio ricorso al ragionamento analogico, le fonti considerate permettono di farsi un’idea non solo del processo di crescita in sé, ma anche del ruolo assegnato nella cultura e nel pensiero della Grecia antica alla madre nel suo rapporto con la prole. After a terminological framework aimed at presenting the most common roots that express the concepts of growth and development of the living being in ancient Greek, the attention is turned to the ways in which texts of various kinds and dating (from Homer to the Hippocratic Corpus) the growth of the human being is described starting from the constant confrontation with the vegetable world, so that the more or less implicit mentalities can emerge from the configuration of the theories. Through the massive use of analogical reasoning, the sources considered allow us to get an idea not only of the growth process itself, but also of the role assigned in the culture and thought of ancient Greece to the mother in her relationship with the offspring.

Background: Little is known about the comparative risk of death with atypical or conventional antipsychotics (APs) among persons with cardiovascular or cerebrovascular disease (CCD). Research design and methods: A cohort study was conducted using five Italian claims databases. New atypical AP users with CCD aged ≥65 (reference) were matched to new conventional AP users. Mortality per 100 person-years (PYs) and hazard ratios (HR), estimated using Cox models, were reported. Incidence and risk of death were estimated for persons having drug–drug interactions. Outcome occurrence was evaluated 180 days after AP initiation. Results: Overall 24,711 and 27,051 elderly new conventional and atypical AP users were identified. The mortality rate was 51.3 and 38.5 deaths per 100 PYs for conventional and atypical AP users. Mortality risk was 1.33 (95%CI: 1.27–1.39) for conventional APs. There was no increased mortality risk with single drug–drug interactions (DDIs) vs. no DDI. AP users with ≥1 DDI had a 29% higher mortality risk compared to no DDI in the first 90 days of treatment (HR: 1.29 (95% CI: 1.00–1.67)). Conclusions: Conventional APs had a higher risk of death than atypical APs among elderly persons with CCD. Having ≥1 DDI was associated with an increased risk of death.

The Lexikon by Hesychius from Alexandreia (V-VI century) is one of the most important lexicographical works in Ancient Greek. It contains an encyclopedic amount of glossematic terms (lexeis) from several kinds of literary sources – epic, lyric and dramatic poetry, rhetoric, historiography, paremiography, neo and veterotestamentary tradition, and so on. Although medical glosses – in particular Hippocratic – are significantly present in the Lexikon, they have not been systematically investigated so far. After presenting a brief story of the more recent studies on the textual tradition and the edition of the Hesychius’ work, this paper aims to offer a thorough investigation of some Hesychian glosses with medical (embryological) content which have been traditionally attributed to Hippocratic texts, in particular to the embryological treatise “On the Nature of the Child” (de natura pueri). Through the detailed textual confrontation between Hesychius’ work and other (both lexicographical and literary) sources it emerges how difficult it is to precisely identify the original locus of every glossematic term, for Hesychius’ work is the result of a complex and stratified lexicographical tradition taking into account several cultural, literary and linguistic interests and aspects. From this point of view, this paper aims to lay the foundation for more systematic investigation on some groups of medical glosses from the Hesychius’ Lexikon, selected on the basis of their content or pertaining to specific Hippocratic texts.

The present study aims to investigate the use and semantics of the most common terminology used by the medical writers of the Hippocratic Collection in order to define diseases commonly considered to be of a “congenital” nature, with particular attention to nominal as well as verbal forms, composed by the prefixation syn-, indicating the different stages of the pathological process according to which disease is represented as a proper entity claimed to arise inside the patient, to develop, to became old and then also to die together with him or her. Individual constitution, familiarity, epigenetic factors such as conditions of growth during gestation or climatic conditions, age of the patient as well as timing of the disease onset are the complex elements which are to be taken into account by the physician, whose task is to recognize the morbid signs at the right time in order to apply the adequate therapy.

L’articolo contiene una dettagliata indagine di alcuni termini di colore (poikìlos, chloròs, erythròs, pòrphyros e loro composti), di cui si esamina l’uso e i significati nel confronto tra lirica greca arcaica e letteratura medica, con particolare attenzione per i contesti erotici. In accordo con quanto già evidenziato da altri studiosi, emerge in generale l’estensione e l’innovazione, da parte di lirici e medici, del tradizionale ambito culturale e semantico di tali termini, a discapito del mero tratto coloristico. Specificamente, il confronto tra l’uso poetico e medico, specie ippocratico, dei termini di colore considerati mostra alcune corrispondenze nella rappresentazione e nell’immaginario dell’esperienza erotica: nel caso di chloròs, la passione d’amore è vista come una malattia che consuma gli amanti, mentre gli aggettivi erythròs e pòrphyros rimandano all’agitazione dell’umore sanguigno che fa arrossire la persona innamorata nel contesto della topica del fuoco d’amore. Poikìlos è usato in poesia per alludere agli aspetti ingannevoli e seducenti dell’amore, nel linguaggio medico fa riferimento ad un’esibizione teatrale di capacità tecniche, senza apparenti connessioni con il motivo erotico. The paper contains a detailed investigation of some colour terms (poikìlos, chloròs, erythròs, pòrphyros and their compounds) which are examined in their semantic aspects and in their use by the Greek archaic lyric poets as well as by ancient physicians, particularly in erotic contexts. It emerges, according to previous studies by other scholars on this issue, that both lyric poetry and medicine contribute to an extension and upgrading of the traditional semantic and cultural range of these terms, often to the detriment of their chromatic traits. Specifically, the comparison between the poetic and medical, particularly Hippocratic, use of the colour terms considered shows some correspondences in representation and imagery of erotic experience: in the case of chloròs, love is represented as a disease which consumes the lovers, while the adjectives erythròs and pòrphyros express the blood agitation which makes the person in love blush, according to the topic of the fire of love. Poikìlos is used in poetic context to allude to the deceptive and seductive aspects of love, while in the medical language it refers to a theatrical show of technical skills, where no apparent connection with erotic motifs is present.

Si tratta di una dettagliata recensione di un volume miscellaneo, curato da Stefania Fortuna, dedicato al tema delle controversie nell'ambito della letteratura medica antica e medioevale, e pubblicato come numero speciale della rivista Medicina nei Secoli (29.3, 2017). A detailed review of a miscellaneous volume, edited by Stefania Fortuna, dedicated to the topic of controversies in the field of ancient and medieval medical literature, and published as a special issue of the journal Medicina nei Secoli (29.3, 2017).

Recensione di un volume dedicato all'indagine dei campi lessicali e semantici dei concetti di 'vita' e 'morte' negli scritti del Corpus ippocratico.

Il volume indaga le radici storiche delle malattie che oggi definiamo genetiche e/o ereditarie, ponendo le premesse terminologiche e scientifiche che stanno a fondamento della riflessione moderna e contemporanea sulla malattia genetica, qui animata dal filo della continuità e della pur forte discontinuità con il pensiero antico. In tal senso, si presenta una retrospettiva storico-critica che, affondando le proprie radici nell’indagine lessicografica dei termini fondanti il pensiero embriogenetico moderno, interroga la validità storica ed epistemica di alcuni concetti e parole-chiave dell’era post-genomica, tra cui quello di causalità, o il rapporto tra natura e cultura, per toccare il nucleo più sensibile del pensiero biopolitico contemporaneo, ossia la questione eugenetica e i limiti dell’antropopoiesi. Attraverso una ricerca condotta in maniera interdisciplinare, nel volume si intrecciano diversi approcci alla documentazione storico-medica provenienti da differenti tipologie di fonti – bibliografiche, archeologiche, iconografiche – e contesti socio-culturali. Con il contributo di autori italiani e stranieri, il volume (prodotto dal gruppo di ricerca finanziato con un progetto FIRB – Futuro in Ricerca 2010) presenta i risultati di un dialogo continuo tra il presente e il passato, contribuendo alla comprensione dell’evoluzione del pensiero medico-scientifico con tutti gli attrezzi offerti dagli studi umanistici. The volume investigates the historical roots of the diseases we now call genetic and / or hereditary, laying the terminological and scientific premises that are the basis of modern and contemporary reflection on genetic disease, here animated by the thread of continuity and of strong discontinuity with thought ancient. In this sense, a historical-critical retrospective is presented which, sinking its roots in the lexicographic investigation of the fundamental terms of modern embryogenetic thought, questions the historical and epistemic validity of some concepts and key-words of the post-genomic era, between which of causality, or the relationship between nature and culture, to touch the most sensitive core of contemporary biopolitical thought, namely the eugenic question and the limits of anthropopoiesis.

During the XVIIth Century, particularly with Descartes, appeared the modern concept of nature: a nature as object submitted to the reason of man. Contrary to what is generally assumed, this « nature » as domain to be worked out by man does not depend on the Greek concept of phusis. It is not to be opposed either to the modern concept of « culture ». On the contrary the Greek phusis as dynamical process invites us to think the relationship between nature and culture, or rather between the environment and the communities of men which live in it and through it in terms of a necessary interaction. The Greek phusis leads to a critique of the modern, neoliberal paradigm of natural ressources to be exploited just for an economical profit. The technical arts invented by Prometheus give us the idea of the possible interaction between man and an environments which is a significant one, in a civilian perspective. The social and cultural construction of men in their milieu should be considered in anthropopoietic and ecopoietic terms. Nature cannot be but culture.

This paper deals with the outcomes of Galenism in Greek Late Antiquity and in the first period of the Byzantine era, considering particularly the rare but significant elements of novelty which are present in the rereading of the ancient tradition by John of Alexandria, in the Alexandrian Summaries of the Galenic Canon, and by Stephanus and Theophilus Protospatharius.

Twins contributed to the development of different medical theories about generation. Conceived in a single sexual relationship, thanks to an excess of seminal material, or the result of superfetation, with one or more sexual partners, twins were perceived as ambivalent beings, either as signs of abundance, or on the opposite as contrary to natural and social order because of adultery. Comparing the similarity of twins with eggs adds to their association with animality.

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between adherence to statin therapy and the risk of exacerbation among elderly individuals affected by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cardiovascular disease. Methods: Using the healthcare utilisation databases of five Italian territorial units accounting for nearly 35% of the Italian population, we recruited a cohort of 6263 elderly persons (i.e. aged 65 years or older) with co-existing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cardiovascular disease who initiated statin therapy. Exposure was adherence to statins measured by the proportion of days of follow-up covered. Outcome was the first hospital admission for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease occurring in the period of observation. A proportional hazards model was used to estimate the hazard ratio and 95% confidence intervals for the exposure–outcome association, after adjusting for several covariates. A set of sensitivity analyses was performed to account for sources of systematic uncertainty. Results: During an average follow-up of about 4 years, 1307 cohort members experienced the outcome. Compared with patients with low adherence (proportion of days of follow-up covered ≤ 40%), those with intermediate (proportion of days of follow-up covered 41–80%) and high (proportion of days of follow-up covered > 80%) adherence exhibited a lower risk of exacerbation of 16% (95% confidence interval 3–27) and 23% (95% confidence interval 10–34). Conclusions: In a real-world setting, we observed evidence that adherence to statin therapy markedly reduced the risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations in elderly patients with co-existing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cardiovascular disease. Given the limited and controversial evidence from trials, more randomised controlled trials are urgently needed to better examine the potential benefits of statins as adjunct therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

The paper aims to offer an account of some representative opinions of ancient Greeks about the role of the space, conceived in its geographical/environmental value, in which a certain population lives, as well as of the language spoken by a population, in order to build historically the concept of Greek nation (to Hellenikón). The different positions expressed on these matters by Herodotus, Thucydides, Strabon and Pausanias are discussed, and the examination mostly concernes the ethnic and historical-linguistic aspects of the representation of the Dorians and Ionians.

Objectives To describe NSAID utilization for musculoskeletal conditions in a large cohort of Italian elderly with cerebro/cardiovascular disease, a population in which NSAIDs should be generally avoided due to the prothrombotic potential. Methods Administrative data from five Italian geographic areas were analyzed. Patients aged ≥ 65 with a cerebro/cardiovascular event recorded between 2008 and 2011 (cohort entry) were selected. Prescription NSAIDs reimbursed for musculoskeletal conditions and dispensed during 1 year follow-up were retrieved to describe (i) prevalence of use, (ii) average amount of defined daily doses of NSAIDs claimed by users per day of follow-up, and (iii) distribution of the received daily dose (RDD) among patients with ≥ 2 dispensings. Among new users, i.e., patients without NSAID dispensings during 2 years before cohort entry, the first dispensed NSAID molecule was observed. Results Overall, 511,989 patients were selected. Across the five geographic areas, prevalence of use ranged from 48 to 21% and average consumption ranged between 30 and 67 DDD/1000 users/day. Around 10% of patients in the overall cohort had a RDD > 1. Nimesulide (9.6%) and diclofenac (7.5%) had the highest prevalence of use. The most consumed NSAIDs were nimesulide and coxibs with 10.6 and 7.5 DDD/1000 users/day, respectively. Among new users recruited in 2011, 30% had diclofenac or a coxibs as the first prescription. Conclusions NSAID use was common in the study cohort, particularly in central-southern areas. In contrast with current recommendations, coxibs and diclofenac were among the most prescribed active principles, even in new users. Interventions to promote appropriateness of use are warranted. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00228-018-2411-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Introduction Real-world data on the comparative effectiveness and safety of switching among different epoetins (including originators and biosimilars) are limited. In light of current debate about interchangeability, prescribers, some patient groups and decision makers are calling for additional post-marketing evidence on the clinical effects of switching between originator and biosimilar epoetins in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. Objective The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of switching versus non-switching and of switching from originator/biosimilar epoetin alpha (ESA α) to any other epoetin in CKD patients. Methods An observational, record-linkage, multi-database, retrospective cohort study was carried out in four Italian geographical areas. All subjects with at least one ESA α dispensing between 1 January 2009 and 31 December 2015 were retrieved. Switching was defined as any transition between originator/biosimilar ESA α to any other epoetin in a series of two consecutive prescriptions up to 2 years. Switchers were matched 1:1 with non-switchers by baseline propensity score and by duration of ESA α treatment. Switchers and non-switchers were followed up from switching date to a maximum of 1 year. Lack of effectiveness and safety of switching versus non-switching were evaluated through Cox regression models (hazard ratio [HR], 95% confidence interval [CI]). A direct comparison between the two switcher categories (switchers from originator/biosimilar ESA α to any other epoetin) was also performed. Results Overall, 14,400 incident users of ESA α for anaemia due to CKD (61.4% originator, 38.6% biosimilar) were available for analysis. During the follow-up, we found no differences on effectiveness (HR 1.02, 95% CI 0.79–1.31 originators; HR 1.16, 95% CI 0.75–1.79 biosimilars) and safety outcomes (HR 1.08, 95% CI 0.77–1.50 originators; HR 1.20, 95% CI 0.66–2.21 biosimilars) between switchers and non-switchers of ESA α. Cumulative probabilities of recording an adverse event, either in terms of lack of effectiveness or safety issue, were the same for two switching categories Conclusions In this large-scale Italian observational multi-database study, switching versus non-switching as well as switching from biosimilar/originator ESA α to any other epoetin in CKD patients is not associated with any effectiveness and safety outcomes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s40264-019-00845-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.