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The Early Pleistocene mammal communities of Europe are characterised by a great diversity of large carnivorans. Among them, the largest ever hyaenid,Pachycrocuta brevirostris, a fierce predator with great bone-cracking adaptations that has left its taphonomic signature on several fossiliferous sites. Here, we perform a rigorous taphonomic analysis focusing on bone surface modifications and damage patterns on large-sized ungulate bones from the site Tsiotra Vryssi (1.78 to ~1.5Ma; Mygdonia Basin, Greece), aiming to identify the main biotic agent responsible for the modifications. Results reveal significant carnivore ravaging of the assemblage, and selective consumption of bones/bone portions related to nutrient value. Comparisons with modifications on similar-sized ungulate carcasses produced by extant and extinct predators, and similarities withPachycrocuta-modified assemblages, indicate thatPachycrocutawas the principal agent of modification. Overall, this study not only provides taphonomic evidence for the interpretation of Tsiotra Vryssi, but also offers insights into the palaeobiology, and particularly carcass consumption behaviour of the giant hyaena. Hence, it advances our knowledge on carnivoran guild dynamics and prey–predator relationships during this epoch and has important implications for the investigations of the subsistence behaviour of the meat-eating hominins, who entered Eurasia at ~1.8Ma, roughly synchronously withPachycrocuta.

In this article we present the new open-air Middle Pleistocene locality Marathousa 2, which was discovered during a double intensive and targeted field survey in the lignite mines of the Megalopolis basin (Greece). The locality is situated just below the Lignite Seam III of the Marathousa Member (Choremi Formation), and its similar stratigraphic position with the chronologically well-constrained locality Marathousa 1 (dated between 500 and 400 ka and correlated to the Marine Isotope Stage 12) indicates a comparable age for Marathousa 2. The locality most notably yielded dental and postcranial remains of Hippopotamus, with those found at the locality’s Area A most likely belonging to a single individual. The dimensions of the dental elements support an attribution to H. antiquus, a large-sized taxon, almost twice as large as the recent common H. amphibius, and with strong aquatic habits. Cut marks identified on a thoracic vertebra indicate hominin butchering of the carcass. Preliminary paleoenvironmental remarks based on the mammal and mollusk fauna, indicate that hominin activities took place at the margins of or near a perhaps cold freshwater water body, but with temperatures that allowed its persistence throughout the year, and perhaps under drier conditions compared to preceding and succeeding periods in the basin. In addition to the exploitation of elephants in Marathousa 1, Marathousa 2 provides further evidence of megafauna exploitation during the Middle Pleistocene in the Megalopolis Basin and one of the few examples of hippopotamus carcass processing during the Lower Paleolithic in Europe. Therefore, it advances our knowledge of the food acquisition strategies and subsistence behavior of Pleistocene Homo, and highlights the need for further research in the basin, where megafauna is well recorded., PaleoAnthropology, Vol. 2023 No. 1 (2023): (in progress)

By applying advanced spatial statistical methods, spatial taphonomy complements the traditional taphonomic approach and enhances our understanding of biostratinomic and diagenetic processes. In this study, we elaborate on a specific aspect – spatial anisotropy – of taphonomic processes. We aim to unravel the taphonomic history of the Early Pleistocene vertebrate assemblage of Tsiotra Vryssi (Mygdonia Basin, Greece). Circular statistics are used for the fabric analysis of elongated elements; geostatistics (directional variograms), wavelet and point pattern analyses are applied for detecting anisotropy at the assemblage level. The anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) of sedimentary magnetic minerals is also investigated. The results, integrated with preliminary remarks about the differential preservation of skeletal elements, sedimentological and micromorphological observations, suggest multiple dispersion events and recurrent spatial re‐arrangement of a lag, (peri)autochthonous assemblage, consistent with the cyclical lateral switching of a braided fluvial system. Furthermore, this study offers a contribution to the building of a spatial taphonomic referential framework for the interpretation of other fossil vertebrate assemblages, including archaeo‐palaeontological ones.

Human-proboscidean interactions are key nodes of complex ecological, cultural and socio-econom- ic systems. In the last decades, evidence has been provided in support of an early human exploitation of proboscidean carcasses, offering further insights into past human behaviors, diet and subsistence strategies. Nevertheless, the mode of acquisition of the carcasses, the degree of exploitation, its timing relative to carnivore scavenging and to the decom- position of the carcass, its ecological and socio-eco- nomical role are hitherto not fully understood and a matter of debate. By summarizing the empirical evidence for human-elephant interactions in Early and Middle Pleistocene open-air sites of western Eurasia, this contribution elaborates on the need for a more rigorous, spatially explicit inferential procedure in modeling past human behaviors. A renewed analytical approach, namely spatial ta- phonomy, is introduced. In its general term, spatial taphonomy refers to the multiscale investigation of the spatial properties of taphonomic processes. Building upon a long lasting tradition of tapho- nomic studies, it seeks for a more effective theoret- ical and methodological framework that accounts for the spatio-temporal dimension inherent to any complex system. By bridging into a spatio-tempo- ral framework the traditional archaeological, geo- archaeological and taphonomic approaches, spatial taphonomy enhances our understanding of the processes forming archaeological and palaeonto- logical assemblages, allowing a finer comprehen- sion of past human behaviors. The symposium and the volume "Human-elephant interactions: from past to present" were funded by the Volkswagen Foundation.

Following the discovery and excavation of the Lower Palaeolithic butchering locality Marathousa 1 (MAR-1; Megalopolis Basin, Peloponnesus, Greece), conducted by the Ephoreia of Paleoanthropology and Speleology, Greek Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, led to the discovery of a new open-air locality, Marathousa 2 (MAR-2), approximately 1.5 km eastern of MAR-1, where stratified fossils were identified on a profile of the Marathousa Member (Choremi Formation), directly below the Lignite Unit III of the Marathousa mine. Two areas were designated, both yielding so far mainly hippopotamid bones: Area A with (cervical and thoracic) vertebrae and ribs belonging to a single individual of Hippopotamus, as well as a mandibular fragment of a fallow deer (Dama sp.), and Area B, about 90 m NW, with isolated dental Hippopotamus specimens. The fossils in both areas occur in the same stratigraphic layer, which consists of brown, organic-rich, clayey fine sands with clay clasts. Although the vertebral plates fuse towards the end of the epiphyseal bone fusing sequence in mammals, the unfused plates of the vertebrae from Area A indicate that they belong to a juvenile-young individual. The study of the dental specimens revealed that they belong to the large-sized Hippopotamus antiquus. This species was present in Europe during the Early–Middle Pleistocene, and although its last occurrences are quite vague, it seems that it was replaced by the extant H. amphibius during the second half of the Middle Pleistocene . Hippopotamus antiquus is already known from MAR-1, dated to between 500 and 400 ka, and the similar stratigraphic position of MAR-2, indicates a comparable age for the locality. Hippopotamus antiquus was a largesized hippopotamid, more than twice as big as the extant H. amphibius, and was highly dependent on water and aquatic vegetation; therefore, its presence indicates the existence of large and permanent freshwater bodies, and, together with the presence of the fallow deer, temperate climatic conditions. The good state of preservation of the MAR-2 bones allows the identification of taphonomic modifications. Of particular importance is a Hippopotamus thoracic vertebra, which shows striations almost at the middle of the lateral side of the spinous process. The three-dimensional virtual reconstructions of the striations with the use of a confocal microscope enabled their micromorphological study and their identification as cut marks. The presence of cut marks indicate human modification of the vertebra by means of butchering activities, possibly attributed to filleting. In addition to the exploitation of straight-tusked elephants (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) in MAR-1, MAR-2 constitutes further evidence of megafauna exploitation during the Middle Pleistocene in the Megalopolis Basin and one of the few examples of hippopotami carcass processing during the Lower Palaeolithic in Europe. As such, it contributes to the better knowledge of the food acquisition strategies and subsistence behavior of Pleistocene Homo, and emphasizes the need for further research in the basin.

Recent excavations at the Middle Pleistocene open-air site of Marathousa 1 have unearthed in one of the two investigated areas (Area A) a partial skeleton of a single individual of Palaeoloxodon antiquus and other faunal remains in spatial and stratigraphic association with lithic artefacts. In Area B, a much higher number of lithic artefacts was collected, spatially and stratigraphically associated also with faunal remains. The two areas are stratigraphically correlated, the main fossiliferous layers representing an en mass depositional process in a lake margin context. Evidence of butchering (cut-marks) has been identified on bones of the elephant skeleton, as well on elephant and other mammal bones from Area B. However, due to the secondary deposition of the main find-bearing units, it is of primary importance to evaluate the degree and reliability of the spatial association of the lithic artefacts with the faunal remains. Indeed, spatial association does not necessarily imply causation, since natural syn- and post-depositional processes may equally produce spatial association. Assessing the degree and extent of post-depositional reworking processes is crucial to fully comprehend the archaeological record, and therefore to reliably interpret past human behaviours. The present study uses a comprehensive set of spatial statistics in order to disentangle the depositional processes behind the distribution of the archaeological and palaeontological record at Marathousa 1. Preliminary results of our analyses suggest that a high-energy erosional process, attributed to a hyperconcentrated flow deposited at the margin of a swamp, reworked an autochthonous, exposed or slightly buried, scatter of lithic artefacts and faunal remains. Minor reworking and substantial spatial association of the lithic and faunal assemblages support the current interpretation of Marathousa 1 as a butchering site.

Space is an ineluctable reference dimension in Palaeolithic research for monitoring site formation and modification processes. Quantitative, hypothesis-driven analyses of spatial patterns are paramount to understand the dynamics of cultural and natural processes and, therefore, to correctly interpret past human behaviours. However, spatial statistics are seldom used in a taphonomic perspective. This cumulative dissertation aims to contribute to the development of a spatial taphonomic approach to the study of site formation processes. Multilevel multiscale spatial statistics are applied to the taphonomic study of I) the Lower Palaeolithic site of Pirro Nord 13, Italy; II) the Middle Pleistocene open-air site of Marathousa 1, Greece and III) the Late Villafranchian palaeontological locality of Tsiotra Vryssi, Greece. The first study evaluates the reliability of the spatial and stratigraphic association of the lithic artefacts with the faunal remains that are used for the biochronological estimate of the site of Pirro Nord 13. The spatial properties of both biostratinomic and diagenetic processes are investigated. Results of our analyses confirm the stratigraphic integrity of the deposit. In the second study, statistical inference is conducted in order to test two contrasting models of deposition - autochthonous vs. allochthonous. A geoarchaeological approach is adopted for the analysis of the orientation and three-dimensional distribution of the finds. Results of our analyses are consistent with minor transportation and substantial spatio-temporal association of the lithic and faunal assemblages, thus supporting the current interpretation of Marathousa 1 as a butchering site. The third study elaborates on a hitherto little investigated aspect of spatial taphonomy: multilevel anisotropy. Recursive anisotropy is detected both at the level of taphonomic elements and at the assem-blage level at Tsiotra Vryssi. Along with analysis of the differential preservation of skeletal elements and sedimentological observations, the taphonomic history of the site is unravelled. Furthermore, by conducting a spatial taphonomic analysis of a non-human related faunal assemblage, this study contributes to the building of an essential referential framework for the interpretation of human-related fossil assemblages deposited in fluvial environments. Spatial taphonomy complements the traditional archaeological, geoarchaeological and taphonomic approaches. It enhances our understanding of the processes forming archaeological and palaeontological assemblages, with implications for palaeoecological reconstruction, biochronological estimates and the interpretation of past human behaviours.

The present study describes the sedimentology and formation processes of the archaeological siteMarathousa 1, part of a Pleistocene lignite-bearing succession at the Megalopolis basin (SouthernGreece). The sedimentary sequence of the site comprises about 4e5 m lacustrine andfluviolacustrineclastic deposits found between Lignite Seam II and III. The lower part of this sequence is characterized byrelatively high rate subaqueous sedimentation of bedded sands and silts with local evidence of slumpingand liquefaction attributed to a seismic event. This part of the sequence containsfluctuating butgenerally low organic and carbonate content probably associated with cold and arid conditions of aglacial period. The upper part of the sequence follows a major hiatus attributed to exposure and erosion.A series of erosional bounded depositional units are observed in this sequence suggesting importantwater-levelfluctuations. The subaqueous emplacement of the deposits is attributed to subaerialflood-generated, organic- and carbonate-rich dilute mudflows and hyperconcentratedflows. Organic-richsedimentation culminates with the formation of the overlying lignite seam. This change is interpretedas a gradual return to warmer and humid conditions of an interglacial period.The fossiliferous and cultural levels at Marathousa 1 are associated with the major erosional andexposed surface found in the upper part of the sequence. This surface was part of an extensive mudflatsurrounding the lake shore at that time. The overlying mudflows have locally redistributed and buriedthe archaeological remains, thus preserving this very important butchering site.

No abstract available.