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Abstract Background Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) are the definitive biological vectors of African trypanosomes in humans and animals. Controlling this vector is the most promising method of preventing trypanosome transmission. This requires a comprehensive understanding of tsetse biology and host preference to inform targeted design and management strategies, such as the use of olfaction and visual cues in tsetse traps. No current review exists on host preference and blood meal analyses of tsetse flies. Methods This review presents a meta-analysis of tsetse fly blood meal sources and the methodologies used to identify animal hosts from 1956 to August 2022. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRIMA-ScR) was applied. This focused on tsetse-endemic countries, blood meal analysis methodologies and the blood meal hosts identified. The articles were retrieved and screened from databases using predetermined eligibility criteria. Results Only 49/393 of the articles retrieved matched the inclusion criteria. Glossina's main hosts in the wild included the bushbuck, buffalo, elephant, warthog, bushpig and hippopotamus. Pigs, livestock and humans were key hosts at the domestic interface. The least studied species included Glossina fuscipleuris, G. fusca, G. medicorum, G. tabaniformis and G. austeni. In the absence of preferred hosts, Glossina fed opportunistically on a variety of hosts. Precipitin, haemagglutination, disc diffusion, complement fixation, ELISA and PCR-based assays were used to evaluate blood meals. Cytochrome b (Cyt b) was the main target gene in PCR to identify the vertebrate hosts. Conclusions Tsetse blood meal sources have likely expanded because of ecological changes that could have rendered preferred hosts unavailable. The major approaches for analysing tsetse fly blood meal hosts targeted Cyt b gene for species identification by Sanger sequencing. However, small-fragment DNAs, such as the mammalian 12S and 16S rRNA genes, along with second- and third-generation sequencing techniques, could increase sensitivity for host identification in multiple host feeders that Sanger sequencing may misidentify as “noise”. This review of tsetse fly blood meal sources and approaches to host identification could inform strategies for tsetse control. Graphical Abstract

The proposal to eradicate tsetse flies from South Africa, including its protected areas, via the sequential aerosol technique combined with the sterile insect technique to reduce trypanosomiasis in cattle did not present an appropriate analysis of the impacts that implementation of the proposal would have on biodiversity. Not only would the implementation of the proposal be contrary to South African laws protecting and conserving biodiversity, but it would also have negative consequences for the conservation of biodiversity. Some of the negative consequences are reviewed, including extirpations and negative impacts on ecological and ecosystem processes and services. Alternative strategies to control trypanosomiasis in cattle effectively in a more environment-friendly manner are presently available and others will almost certainly become available in the not-too-distant future. Conservation implications: Environmental protection, promotion of conservation and sustainable use of the environment are all deeply seated in South Africa’s law. Rural livestock husbandry considerations and biodiversity conservation are not mutually exclusive and the importance of one cannot supersede the other. The eradication proposal is seen to be environmentally damaging and therefore it is concluded that the purpose of this proposed eradication exercise is unconstitutional, contrary to various multilateral agreements South Africa has entered into and contrary to good environmental governance.

Tsetse flies, the vectors of trypanosomiasis, represent a threat to public health and economy in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite these concerns, information on temporal and spatial dynamics of tsetse and trypanosomes remain limited and may be a reason that control strategies are less effective. The current study assessed the temporal variation of the relative abundance of tsetse fly species and trypanosome prevalence in relation to climate in the Maasai Steppe of Tanzania in 2014-2015. Tsetse flies were captured using odorbaited Epsilon traps deployed in ten sites selected through random subsampling of the major vegetation types in the area. Fly species were identified morphologically and trypanosome species classified using PCR. The climate dataset was acquired from the African Flood and Drought Monitor repository. Three species of tsetse flies were identified: G. swynnertoni (70.8%), G. m. morsitans (23.4%), and G.pallidipes (5.8%). All species showed monthly changes in abundance with most of the flies collected in July. The relative abundance of G. m. morsitans and G. swynnertoni was negatively correlated with maximum and minimum temperature, respectively. Three trypanosome species were recorded: T. vivax (82.1%), T. brucei (8.93%), and T. congolense (3.57%). The peak of trypanosome infections in the flies was found in October and was three months after the tsetse abundance peak; prevalence was negatively correlated with tsetse abundance. A strong positive relationship was found between trypanosome prevalence and temperature. In conclusion, we find that trypanosome prevalence is dependent on fly availability, and temperature drives both tsetse fly relative abundance and trypanosome prevalence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have supported a Co-ordinated Research Project (CRP) on 'Applying GIS and population genetics for managing livestock insect pests'. This six-year CRP (2008-2013) focused on research aimed at under-pinning the Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management (AW-IPM) of populations of tsetse and screwworm flies, and this introductory paper to the Special Issue integrates the findings of the CRP participants and discusses them in a broader context. The tools and techniques for mapping and modelling the distributions of genetically-characterised populations of tsetse and screwworm flies are increasingly used by researchers and managers for more effective decision-making in AW-IPM programmes, as illustrated by the reports in this Special Issue. Currently, the insect pests are often characterized only by neutral genetic markers suitable for recognizing spatially isolated populations that are sometimes associated with specific environments. Two challenges for those involved in AW-IPM are the standardization of best practice to permit the efficient application of GIS and genetic tools by regional teams, and the need to develop further the mapping and modelling of parasite and pest phenotypes that are epidemiologically important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differentiation of bloodstream-form trypanosomes into procyclics in tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) is a crucial step in the establishment of midgut infections. A number of factors have been implicated in the transformation process, including enzymes and lectins or lectin-like molecules. Recently, Glossina proteolytic lectin (Gpl) gene, which encodes a protein with both lectin and trypsin activities has been shown to stimulate transformation of bloodstream-form trypanosomes into procyclics in vitro. Using RT-PCR, we show that the induction of Gpl gene expression by blood meal occurs only in Glossina fuscipes fuscipes Newstead, Glossina austeni Newstead, Glossina pallidipes Austen, and not in the Anopheles gambiae Giles sensu stricto, Phlebotomus duboscqi Neveu-Lemaire, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann and Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus). The expression means of Gpl mRNA in G. f. fuscipes following a blood meal were significant (P < 0.05) with low expression in teneral flies and reaching a maximum between 48 and 72h (P < 0.05), suggesting time-dependent regulation of the transcription. The expression of the Gpl gene was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in G. f. fuscipes fed on blood meal infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei as compared with G. f. fuscipes fed on uninfected blood meal. This suggests some form of interaction of T. b. brucei or the parasite products with Gpl within the tsetse midgut leading to down-regulation of the Gpl gene. Additionally, refractory G. f. fuscipes expressed higher (P < 0.05) transcript abundance than the susceptible G. pallidipes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite extensive attempts over many decades to control African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) across the tsetse fly belt of Nigeria, AAT persists as major animal health problem causing severe morbidity and mortality in livestock. The large agricultural losses in turn have severe adverse impacts on sustainable agricultural development. Despite this, in the past 50 years there have been no significant national control programs against AAT. This review explores the history of AAT control in Nigeria, examining the successes and failures in measures adopted in Nigeria to control AAT and the changing disease epidemiology., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)