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This article offers insight into the situation of Native American grandmothers who are caregivers to younger generations. Nationally, tribal grandmothers rear grandchildren at percentages higher than any other ethnic minority group. Even though older Native American women have experienced challenges to their traditional roles as leaders, dispensers of wisdom, and spiritual guides, there exists a contemporary necessity to take the role of family head. Oklahoma provides a case example because of its large Native American population and high proportion of grandparent child rearing. This high rate can be traced to historical oppression and contemporary realities such as incarceration of middle-generation mothers. Oklahoma has the highest national rate of female incarceration and, as a result, a majority of their children live with grandparents. These multigenerational families, with a Native American grandmotber at their bead, are testimony to the strengths of the women and also highlight the need for supportive programs and policies. KEYWORDS grandparents rearing grandchildren, Native American, grandmother, Oklahoma DOI: 10.1080/15313204.2010.523653

The objective of this study was to explore what adolescent grandchildren have learned from having a grandparent who suffers dementia and what coping strategies they might recommend for other adolescents in similar situations. We also present information on background factors influencing lessons learned and coping strategies. Adolescent grandchildren living in Barcelona, Spain participated in the study (N = 138). Qualitative analysis was conducted on responses to 2 open-ended questions regarding lessons learned from having a grandparent with dementia and advice to other grandchildren facing similar situations. Five learning and 4 coping strategies emerged from the analysis. Adolescents reported about the value of life, the complexity of the life-span, and changes in personal characteristics such as patience and responsibility as a result of the experience. Advice to other adolescents primarily focused on accepting the dementia as well as acquiring behavioral coping strategies. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that type of care grandparent receives--day center versus nursing home--and age of the adolescent influenced lessons learned and coping strategies. Implications for the developmental tasks of the grandchild during adolescence are discussed.

Within the context of social, demographic, and historical change and informed by a life course perspective, this article examines patterns of relating between grandparents and grandchildren within families across and within generations. Using qualitative data from a study of 10 multigenerational families (N = 86), the analysis assesses continuity and change in grandparent-grandchild ties across three generations of adults. Although findings reveal change in social and family circumstances over time, half the families experienced considerable continuity in grandparent-grandchild ties and whether close or distant, were characterized by distinct grand cultures. In the remaining families, different configurations of individual, family-related, and social factors led to intra- and intergenerational variations. Divorce and remarriage influenced grandparent--grandchild relationships in most families, yielding highly variable outcomes. Ultimately, the study families' experiences demonstrate how social, historical, familial, and individual circumstances merge to influence grandparent--grandchild ties, producing behaviors ranging from loving and supportive to indifferent and abusive. Keywords: grandparenthood; family socialization; intergenerational ties; intergenerational transmission

The rapid growth of urban settlements in the United States has profound but largely unexplored implications for children's relations with grandparents. Rural settlements in the Midwest frequently became a stepping stone to residence in far western states. We examine whether and how relations with grandparents differs for young people in rural farm and nonfarm regions of the Midwest (using the Iowa Youth and Families Project--IYFP) and in urban Southern California (using the Longitudinal Study of Generations--LSOG). Rural youth enjoy more frequent contact with paternal grandparents and receive more help from all grandparents than urban youth. Farm adolescents have even more contact and receive more help from paternal grandparents than rural nonfarm age-mates. Levels of conflict are low across ecologies, although urban youth report higher levels of conflict with maternal grandmothers than rural youth. Even with controls, the relationship of young Americans with their grandparents varies significantly by rural-urban ecology. Keywords: grandchildren; grandparents; intergenerational relations; rural; urban

Although there exists a growing body of literature dedicated to understanding the complexities of grandparenting, few researchers have documented the demographic patterns and social trends that encompass contemporary grandparenthood. Concomitantly, in instances where researchers have described such patterns, data are largely derived from studies profiling American populations. This paper, therefore, first establishes social patterns in Canadian grandparenthood and outlines the demographic context within which individuals participate in grandparent-grandchild relationships. Then, placing these findings in a North American context, this paper offers a comparative examination of grandparenthood in Canada and the United States. This research explores grandparents' rates of survival, the prevalence of grandparenthood, multiple generation families, step-grandparenthood and the availability of grandchildren, in addition, analysis considers rates of intergenerational cohabitation and surrogate parenting as well as grandparents' participation in additional social roles. Ultimately, while national similarities emerge, there are noteworthy differences between Canada and the United States including: the tuning of grandparenthood; the prevalence of grandparenthood; multiple generation families; and rates of intergenerational cohabitation. Bien que l'on trouve de plus en plus d'ouvrages traitant de la question du role tres complexe de grand-parent dens la societe contemporaine, tres peu d'etudes ont examine les habitudes demographiques et les tendances sociales liees au role de grand-parent. Chose frappante, dans les cas ou ces habitudes ont ete presentees par les chercheurs, les donnees proviennent en grande partie d'etudes de populations qui resident aux Etats-Unis. Par consequent, cette etude etablit les dimensions sociales du role de grand-parent au Canada et brosse un tableau du contexte demographique ou evoluent grands-parents et petits-enfants. Cette etude transpose ensuite les resultats canadiens dans un contexte nordamericain afin de comparer le role de grand-parent au Canada a celui aux Etats-Unis. Les aspects etudies sont le taux de survie des grands-parents, la prevalence du role de grand-parent, la composition des families comportant plusieurs generations, les beaux-parents dans leur role de grands-parents et dens quelle mesure les petitsenfants sont disponibles. On y examine aussi la cohabitation entre diverses generations au sein d'une famille, le role des grands-parents substituts, ainsi que la participation des grands-parents dans divers autres roles sociaux. En conclusion, quoiqu'il y aient des similarites a l'echelle nationale, on voit une nette difference entre les deux pays, darts les habitudes suivantes: le moment ou debute le role de grand-parent, la prevalence du role de grand-parent, la composition des generations au sein d'une famille, et la cohabitation entre les diverses generations d'une meme famille., INTRODUCTION Research in the area of grandparenthood has been steadily growing for over two decades. Cumulatively, this work suggests that grandparenthood is a contingent and complex process which is largely […]

The article presents social and health indicators of depression among custodial African American grandmothers. Using a cross-sectional design, a sample of 99 custodial African American grandmothers caring for one or more grandchildren was included in the analysis. The results indicated that approximately 20% of custodial African American grandmothers were depressed. Depressed grandmothers were more likely to report having all ten chronic physical health conditions listed in the study. One additional chronic condition increased the probability of depression by 68%. Old age, more social support, and caring for older children were associated with low levels of depression. The proliferation of grandchildren being raised by African American grandmothers suggests the need for more research, policy, and programmatic interventions. KEYWORDS. Grandparents, caregivers, grandchildren, kinship care, surrogate parents

Results indicate that children view their relationships with grandparents entirely different from those of parents and their close relationships depended on the extent of closeness to grandparents. Data suggest that their greater closeness to grandparents is associated with fewer adjustment issues between them and grandparents.

This article analyzes census data on the increase in incarcerations among women, with specific emphasis on some racial differences. The steady rise in female incarcerations and its impact on grandmothers [...]

The article examines the grandparent/grandchild relationship in Kenya's Luo society, and how reciprocity and care contribute to the transfer of learning in the teaching of healing arts. Learning to heal is not only a cultural but also an emotional and ethical issue embedded in shared daily life.

This paper examines the intergenerational stake hypothesis in the grandparent-grandchild relationship. The hypothesis predicts that older generations will perceive more closeness in a relationship than younger generations. Grandparent-grandchild dyads are surveyed concerning various aspects of their relationship. Using measures of closeness and an established typology of grandparent-grandchild relationship style (Cherlin & Furstenberg, 1985), the study finds that grandparents perceive their relationship with their grandchildren to be considerably closer than their grandchildren perceive the relationship. However, their grandchildren perceive the relationship to be more active than their grandparents do. Explanations of these findings consistent with the intergenerational stake hypothesis are advanced. It is found that the two parties often disagree as to the nature of their relationship on the Cherlin and Furstenberg typology. Details of these disagreements are examined in detail, and implications for the grandparent-grandchild relationship are discussed.

This article examines social factors associated with co-residency among grandmothers and grandchildren. Findings indicate that the transmission of grandmother and grandchild co-residency between generations is more prevalent among African-Americans than other groups and is associated with lower socioeconomic status.

A new aspect of elder law is helping grandparents who are the guardians of their grandchildren. The legal status of grandparents as caretakers is discussed as are the services offered by the Grandparent Caregiver Law Center.

The author reflects on his childhood memories of time spent with his grandmother, trips to Edinburgh, and his life in general.

This article examines data from a longitudinal study on second-generation parenthood, or grandparents serving as the primary caretakers of grandchildren. Findings indicate that second-generation parenthood is more common among single, Black grandmothers from poor families who are often adversely affected by strict time limits placed on welfare benefits.

This article examines the relationships between grandparents and their college-aged grandchildren. The article includes thematic analysis of pride, exchange, affiliation and general orientation of the intergenerational grandchild-granparents relations.

More than one in ten American grandparents raise a grandchild for at least six months, with most of these providing care for three years or more. This longitudinal study, utilizing data from the National Survey of Families and Households, identifies the pre-existing personal characteristics and contextual variables which are predictive of individuals becoming primary caregivers for their grandchildren. Contrary to hypothesis, pre-caregiving attitudes concerning intergenerational solidarity bore little relationship to the likelihood of becoming a caregiver. In contrast, being female, younger, African American, and having not completed high school were significantly predictive of becoming a custodial grandparent. Implications of these findings for research, practice, and policy in gerontology, mental health, and related areas are discussed.

Over the past decade, grandparents have increasingly been called upon to raise their children's children because of family disruption often due to parental abandonment, death, or incarceration. This can be stressful for the grandparents, who may not get the financial assistance received by traditional foster parents. This article presents data from a school-based comprehensive multi-generation program in East Harlem (New York City). It explores environmental stressors associated with children coming into kinship care, and the special developmental, behavioral and school problems they may present. The impact on the grandparent caregivers is discussed, focusing on health status and access to care. Keywords: Kinship care, special needs, grandchildren, environmental stressors, impact of caregiving on grandparents

This paper examines correlates of self-reported depressive symptoms among a sample of 74 urban Latino grandparent caregivers. Nearly half of grandparents in the study scored above the clinical threshold score on the Geriatric Depression Scale, and those rearing grandchildren with special needs reported significantly more depressive symptoms than those who were not. This differential level of depressive symptoms held even with the effects of other known risk and protective factors held constant. Keywords: Caregiving grandparents and depression, Latino grandparents, special needs grandchildren, unmet service needs

The conditions under which some grandparents assume main parenting roles have caused concern and are discussed.

Families in which grandparents are raising grandchildren (N = 38) were interviewed to explore the relationships between grandparents, their adult children and grandchildren. Semi-structured interviews were conducted using an instrument that included questions about family issues and factors affecting grandparent caregivers. Data was analyzed using QSR NUD*IST software for qualitative research. This study provides insight about three major themes: blended grandparent-parent roles, parent-child relationships, and collateral family relationships. Parent-child relationships were ongoing despite sometimes infrequent and sporadic contacts. Implications for social work practice include the need for an increased awareness of multiple family problems and the long-term influence of intergenerational family relationships. Keywords: Grandparent caregivers, grandparents raising grandchildren, multigenerational families, parent-child relationships

Objectives. This study explores how various aspects of a grandparent's religiousness are related to involvement with their grandchildren. Methods. The study ascertains whether religious grandparents are significantly more involved with their grandchildren than less religious grandparents by testing a series of bivariate and multivariate regression models. Multiple measures both of religiousness and of grandparent involvement are used. The study also examines factors that potentially confound, link, or explain the connection between religious involvement and grandparenting (e.g., demographic factors, health, community involvement, traditional values, ties to others). The sample of 585 grandparents comes from two related studies of rural families, the Iowa Youth and Families Project and the Iowa Single Parent Project. Results. Overall, the results indicate that religious grandparents are more involved grandparents, and this involvement is explained in part by their generally greater involvement in all types of family and social ties--religious grandparents are more likely to be enmeshed in social ties to others. Discussion. The implications of these findings are discussed in light of prior research that finds little influence of religion. We also consider the implications of our results for the future of grandparent involvement.

This study examines the processes linking physical impairment with symptoms of anxiety. Analyses are based on a representative sample of 967 physically disabled adults (ages 20 to 90) from ten counties of southwestern Ontario, Canada. Several hypotheses test the intervening role of disability characteristics, perceived health care efficacy, personal attributes, and social stratification resources. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses included sets of those intervening variables entered sequentially. Adjustment produces a significant reduction in the association between symptoms of anxiety and impairment- confirming the intervening role of healthcare efficacy and mastery. Moreover, impairment and mastery have synergistic effects such that higher mastery buffers against the anxiety associated with higher impairment. Other findings raise important questions about age, impairment, and the sense of mastery in the contest of healthcare and gender.

This article reports the experiences of seven African-American HIV-affected grandmothers who participated in a qualitative study in Chicago, Illinois in 1996. Showcasing their stories highlights the existence and concerns of a population which is frequently overlooked. These respondents' attitudes about caregiving were mixed: they experienced it as a mixture of burden and honor. In the face of multiple stressors, these grandmothers demonstrated remarkable resilience, spirituality, and a commitment to kin. Even though the African-American grandmothers were heroic and dedicated, they may still need support from social service and health care systems. Grandparent caregiving in the HIV epidemic will likely increase, and practitioners and policy makers should be prepared to better address the needs of this growing population. KEYWORDS. Gerontology, HIV, AIDS, grandparents

Using gerontological and feminist frameworks, we explored the relationships older women have with their children and grandchildren. In-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted with 34 women, ranging in age from 55 to 88. From our analyses of the women's perceptions of their family relationships, two themes were prevalent; the centrality of children and the peripherality of grandchildren in their everyday lives. The women had varying degrees of involvement with their children and grandchildren, and these relationships contributed to their sense of self and family. Their relationships were not stagnant, but were continually reshaped as both the women and their family members proceeded through the life course. Keywords. Adult children; grandchildren; feminist gerontology; older women.

A theory of grandparent development is described that includes the formulation of assumptions, goals for guiding instruction, curriculum design, and a measurement tool to assess learning needs and evaluate the effects of educational intervention. Cultural considerations are illustrated by a three generational study of African-American (n = 777), Caucasian (n = 1086), and Hispanic (n = 672) subjects who were administered the Grandparent Strengths and Needs Inventory. Perceptions of each generation about the attitudes and behaviors of grandparents were examined with multivariate analysis of variance and post-hoe comparisons to analyze the scores, confirm results, and facilitate interpretation of findings. Results showed significant differences between generations and within cultures. Each generation identified elements of grandparent success as well as issues that deserve consideration in building educational programs.

In a community-defined, epidemiologic sample in East Baltimore, we examined grandmothers' rates of co-residence and their involvement in four parenting activities. Co-residence rates exceeded the national average. Six types of family households with grandmothers were identified, and their frequency varied by race. Neither grandmother age nor employment was associated with grandmothers' parenting involvement, although family structure was. Grandmothers who were the sole parent (21%) or co-parent with a grandfather (6.5%) were most involved in child care and had the fewest number of helpers. Grandmothers living with single mothers (41%) were the next most involved, while grandmothers in mother/father households (9%) were least involved. Key Words: Grandparents, Parenting, Grandparent role

This study examines the developmental stake hypothesis as it relates to changing perceptions of intergenerational relations among members of multigenerational families. The data come from the first two waves (1971 and 1985) of a longitudinal study of multigenerational family members (N = 1,057). We find strong support for the developmental stake hypothesis since, at both time periods, parents (both G1s and G2s) saw less distance in their relations with their children (both G2s and G3s). In addition, all respondents perceived less distance between the G2-G3 generations over time. We also found several gender differences in perceptions of family ties. Contrary to our expectations, only G1 respondents perceived less distance between generations in society in 1985 as compared to 1971. Key Words: Parent-adult child relations, Grandparent-grandchild relations, Developmental stake, Intergenerational stake, Intergenerational relations

This study reports on emotional and concrete help exchanged between a group of Black and White grandmothers and their adult grandchildren (age 18 or older). A voluntary, non-random sample of 168 older women participated in the study along with 144 of their grandchildren. The grandmother's perspective formed the basis of this study. Geographic distance, the grandchild's kin placement, the grandchild's gender and race had significant effects on mutual support. Black grandmothers received more frequent help from their grandchild and reported a higher level of comfort in asking their grandchild for help. Black grandmothers also reported feeling significantly more burdened by their grandchild's requests for help than did Whites.

Many grandparents who find themselves rearing grandchildren believe that they are the only ones in this situation. They often feel isolated, frustrated, and angry; sometimes they feel ashamed. They are not alone, however. This article offers an understanding of the scope and circumstances of grandparents rearing grandchildren. Beyond the who, what, where, and why, the article addresses the major problems facing grandparent-headed families, avenues of assistance for them, and public policy considerations.

Project GUIDE, an innovative program for grandparents who are rearing their grandchildren, offers a comprehensive service program to help all family members cope with their stressful situation. This article describes the many challenges these grandparents and their grandchildren face, the development of the program over time as the extent of the families' needs became apparent, and how the program helps grandparents achieve success as parenting grandparents.

This study examined the solidarity of the grandmother-granddaughter tie when older women migrate. The sample, taken from a larger study (N = 308), included 69 relocated women with one or more grandchildren who reported a granddaughter to be the grandchild of most contact. The revised theory of intergenerational solidarity served as the conceptual framework. The results showed the saliency of the grandmother-granddaughter relationship depended upon the dimension examined. Tests of the hypotheses showed associational solidarity was primarily a function of the opportunity structure proximity and, to a smaller extent, age of the grandchild. No significant relationship existed between norms of grand filial expectations and affect for granddaughters and association. Neither did the results support the impact of norms on affect and their subsequent influence on association.

Kincare is defined as the caring for a child by someone who possesses kinship ties with the child. There is an increasing incidence for the occurrence of kincare in the society due to an increasing number of divorce among couples and a decreasing number of available foster homes. Thus, the children's grandparents are the most frequent providers of kinship care. The grandparents are faced with a variety of problems in kincare which include lack of financial support among others. Thus, there should be a system that would specifically address the needs of these populations.

Why do adolescents value their grandparents? This was the leading question of an investigation among 563 adolescents and young adults in Flanders (Belgium). The Grandparent Meaning Scale which probes eleven a priori dimensions of meaning, was completed by 147 early adolescents (M = 12.5 years), 175 middle adolescents (M = 15.7 years), and 241 late adolescents (M = 18.9 years). Results show that adolescents generally find their grandparents important and feel close to them. Grandparents are valued primarily because they provide affection, reassurance of worth, and reliable alliance. Relational-affective and caregiving meanings were assigned more often to grandmothers whereas advising, teaching, and narrative roles were ascribed more frequently to grandfathers. Maternal grandparents were generally perceived as more important and closer than paternal grandparents. Early adolescents assigned more importance and meaning to their grandparents than middle and late adolescents. There were no differences between grandsons and granddaughters.

Divorce within a family is a well researched practice phenomenon that has tended to primarily focus on the nuclear family. However, in the family counselling literature there is a lack of a detailed examination of the effect of the adult child's divorce on the grandparent-grandchild relationship and other family system levels. In particular, paternal grandparents are viewed as being at high risk for losing contact with grandchildren when the child-in-law is the custodial mother. It is suggested that the disengaged grandparent phenomenon is more widespread than previously believed, and this has serious implications for counsellors and mediators in the field of family divorce.

Quantitative and qualitative data were used to examine the policy/program needs raised in the stories of a purposive sample of 114 primarily white, middle-class grandparents who provide regular care to their grandchildren. Their needs echoed those raised by black grandparents: participation in their grandchild's medical care, the use of social service agencies because of providing regular care to a grandchild, experiences with lawyers because of their legal relationship with their grandchild, the use of child and respite care, and the use of support groups. Although the burden of providing care may be felt differentially by grandparents in different social positions, this is not a 'black grandmother issue' but rather a grandparent as caregiver issue. A rethinking of policies and programs must transcend race with special attention paid to the distinction between custodial, living with, and day-care grandparenting.