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It is well known that the dominant frequency of oscillations in the solar photosphere is $\approx$3 mHz, which is the result of global resonant modes pertaining to the whole stellar structure. However, analyses of the horizontal motions of nearly 1 million photospheric magnetic elements spanning the entirety of solar cycle 24 have revealed an unexpected dominant frequency, $\approx$5 mHz, a frequency typically synonymous with the chromosphere. Given the distinctly different physical properties of the magnetic elements examined in our statistical sample, when compared to largely quiescent solar plasma where $\approx$3 mHz frequencies are omnipresent, we argue that the dominant $\approx$5 mHz frequency is not caused by the buffeting of magnetic elements, but instead is due to the nature of the underlying oscillatory driver itself. This novel result was obtained by exploiting the unmatched spatial and temporal coverage of magnetograms acquired by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) on board NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). Our findings provide a timely avenue for future exploration of the magnetic connectivity between sub-photospheric, photospheric, and chromospheric layers of the Sun's dynamic atmosphere., Comment: Accepted in A&A Letters

The magnetic geometry of the solar atmosphere, combined with projection effects, makes it difficult to accurately map the propagation of ubiquitous waves in fibrillar structures. These waves are of interest due to their ability to carry energy into the chromosphere and deposit it through damping and dissipation mechanisms. To this end, the Interferometric Bidimensional Spectrometer (IBIS) at the Dunn Solar Telescope was employed to capture high resolution H$\alpha$ spectral scans of a sunspot, with the transverse oscillations of a prominent super-penumbral fibril examined in depth. The oscillations are re-projected from the helioprojective-cartesian frame to a new frame of reference oriented along the average fibril axis through non-linear force-free field extrapolations. The fibril was found to be carrying an elliptically polarised, propagating kink oscillation with a period of $430$ s and a phase velocity of $69\pm4$ km s$^{-1}$. The oscillation is damped as it propagates away from the sunspot with a damping length of approximately $9.2$ Mm, resulting in the energy flux decreasing at a rate on the order of $460$ W m$^{-2}$/Mm. The H$\alpha$ line width is examined and found to increase with distance from the sunspot; a potential sign of a temperature increase. Different linear and non-linear mechanisms are investigated for the damping of the wave energy flux, but a first-order approximation of their combined effects is insufficient to recreate the observed damping length by a factor of at least $3$. It is anticipated that the re-projection methodology demonstrated in this study will aid with future studies of transverse waves within fibrillar structures., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ with 17 pages and 13 figures

Solar pores are intense concentrations of magnetic flux that emerge through the Sun's photosphere. When compared to sunspots, they are much smaller in diameter and hence can be impacted and buffeted by neighbouring granular activity to generate significant magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) wave energy flux within their confines. However, observations of solar pores from ground-based telescope facilities may struggle to capture subtle motions synonymous with higher-order MHD wave signatures due to seeing effects produced in the Earth's atmosphere. Hence, we have exploited timely seeing-free and high-quality observations of four small magnetic pores from the Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager (PHI) on board the Solar Orbiter spacecraft. Through acquisition of data under stable observing conditions, we have been able to measure the area fluctuations and horizontal displacements of the solar pores. Cross correlations between perturbations in intensity, area, line-of-sight velocity, and magnetic fields, coupled with the first-time application of novel Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) techniques on the boundary oscillations, provide a comprehensive diagnosis of the embedded MHD waves as sausage and kink modes. Additionally, the previously elusive m = 2 fluting mode is identified in the most magnetically isolated of the four pores. An important consideration lies in how the identified wave modes contribute towards the transfer of energy into the upper solar atmosphere. We find that the four pores examined have approximately 56%, 72%, 52%, and 34% of their total wave energy associated with the identified sausage modes, and around 23%, 17%, 39%, and 49% to their kink modes, respectively, while the first pore also has around an 11% contribution linked to the fluting mode. This study marks the first-time identification of concurrent sausage, kink, and fluting MHD wave modes in solar magnetic pores., Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics

The solar physics community is entering a golden era that is ripe with next-generation ground- and space-based facilities. With ever-increasing resolving power stemming from the newest observational telescopes, it becomes more challenging to obtain (near-)simultaneous measurements at high spatial, temporal and spectral resolutions, while operating at the diffraction limit of these new facilities. Hence, in recent years there has been increased interest in the capabilities integral field units (IFUs) offer towards obtaining the trifecta of high spatial, temporal and spectral resolutions contemporaneously. To date, IFUs developed for solar physics research have focused on mid-optical and infrared measurements. Here, we present an IFU prototype that has been designed for operation within the near-ultraviolet to mid-optical wavelength range, hence providing additional spectral coverage to the instrument suites developed to date. The IFU was constructed as a low-budget proof-of-concept for the upcoming 2m class Indian National Large Solar Telescope and employs circular cross-section fibres to guide light into a Czerny-Turner configuration spectrograph, with the resulting spectra captured using a high quantum efficiency scientific CMOS camera. Mapping of each input fibre allows for the reconstruction of two-dimensional spectral images, with frame rates exceeding 20 per second possible while operating in a non-polarimetric configuration. The science verification data presented here highlights the suitability of fibre-fed IFUs operating at near-ultraviolet wavelengths for solar physics research. Importantly, the successful demonstration of this type of instrument paves the way for further technological developments to make a future variant suitable for upcoming ground-based and space-borne telescope facilities., Comment: 53 pages, 16 figures, accepted for publication by Solar Physics

Previous examinations of fully-convective M-dwarf stars have highlighted enhanced rates of nanoflare activity on these distant stellar sources. However, the specific role the convective boundary, which is believed to be present for spectral types earlier than M2.5V, plays on the observed nanoflare rates is not yet known. Here, we utilize a combination of statistical and Fourier techniques to examine M-dwarf stellar lightcurves that lie on either side of the convective boundary. We find that fully convective M2.5V (and later sub-types) stars have greatly enhanced nanoflare rates compared with their pre-dynamo mode transition counterparts. Specifically, we derive a flaring power-law index in the region of $3.00 \pm 0.20$, alongside a decay timescale of $200 \pm 100$~s for M2.5V and M3V stars, matching those seen in prior observations of similar stellar sub-types. Interestingly, M4V stars exhibit longer decay timescales of $450 \pm 50$~s, along with an increased power-law index of $3.10 \pm 0.18$, suggesting an interplay between the rate of nanoflare occurrence and the intrinsic plasma parameters, for example, the underlying Lundquist number. In contrast, partially convective (i.e., earlier sub-types from M0V to M2V) M-dwarf stars exhibit very weak nanoflare activity, which is not easily identifiable using statistical or Fourier techniques. This suggests that fully convective stellar atmospheres favor small-scale magnetic reconnection, leading to implications for the flare-energy budgets of these stars. Understanding why small-scale reconnection is enhanced in fully convective atmospheres may help solve questions relating to the dynamo behavior of these stellar sources., Comment: 16 pages, 5 figures, 5 tables. Accepted to ApJ

Solar pores are efficient magnetic conduits for propagating magnetohydrodynamic wave energy into the outer regions of the solar atmosphere. Pore observations often contain isolated and/or unconnected structures, preventing the statistical examination of wave activity as a function of atmospheric height. Here, using high resolution observations acquired by the Dunn Solar Telescope, we examine photospheric and chromospheric wave signatures from a unique collection of magnetic pores originating from the same decaying sunspot. Wavelet analysis of high cadence photospheric imaging reveals the ubiquitous presence of slow sausage mode oscillations, coherent across all photospheric pores through comparisons of intensity and area fluctuations, producing statistically significant in-phase relationships. The universal nature of these waves allowed an investigation of whether the wave activity remained coherent as they propagate. Utilizing bi-sector Doppler velocity analysis of the Ca II 8542 {\AA} line, alongside comparisons of the modeled spectral response function, we find fine-scale 5 mHz power amplification as the waves propagate into the chromosphere. Phase angles approaching zero degrees between co-spatial bi-sectors spanning different line depths indicate standing sausage modes following reflection against the transition region boundary. Fourier analysis of chromospheric velocities between neighboring pores reveals the annihilation of the wave coherency observed in the photosphere, with examination of the intensity and velocity signals from individual pores indicating they behave as fractured wave guides, rather than monolithic structures. Importantly, this work highlights that wave morphology with atmospheric height is highly complex, with vast differences observed at chromospheric layers, despite equivalent wave modes being introduced into similar pores in the photosphere., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ

Using high cadence observations from the Hydrogen-alpha Rapid Dynamics camera imaging system on the Dunn Solar Telescope, we present an investigation of the statistical properties of transverse oscillations in spicules captured above the solar limb. At five equally separated atmospheric heights, spanning approximately 4900-7500 km, we have detected a total of 15 959 individual wave events, with a mean displacement amplitude of 151 +/- 124 km, a mean period of 54 +/- 45 s, and a mean projected velocity amplitude of 21 +/- 13 km s^-1. We find that both the displacement and velocity amplitudes increase with height above the solar limb, ranging from 132 +/- 111 km and 17.7 +/- 10.6 km s^-1 at 4900 km, and 168 +/- 125 km and 26.3 +/- 14.1 km s^-1 at 7500 km, respectively. Following the examination of neighboring oscillations in time and space, we find 45% of the waves to be upwardly propagating, 49% to be downwardly propagating, and 6% to be standing, with mean absolute phase velocities for the propagating waves on the order of 75-150 km s^-1. While the energy flux of the waves propagating downwards does not appear to depend on height, we find the energy flux of the upwardly propagating waves decreases with atmospheric height at a rate of -13 200 +/- 6500 W m^-2 /Mm. As a result, this decrease in energy flux as the waves propagate upwards may provide significant thermal input into the local plasma., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ with 15 pages and 9 figures

In \citet{Stangalini20} and \citet{Deb20}, magnetic oscillations were detected in the chromosphere of a large sunspot and found to be linked to the coronal locations where a First Ionization Potential (FIP) effect was observed. In an attempt to shed light onto the possible excitation mechanisms of these localized waves, we further investigate the same data by focussing on the relation between the spatial distribution of the magnetic wave power and the overall field geometry and plasma parameters obtained from multi-height spectropolarimetric non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) inversions of IBIS data. We find that, in correspondence with the locations where the magnetic wave energy is observed at chromospheric heights, the magnetic fields have smaller scale heights, meaning faster expansions of the field lines, which ultimately results in stronger vertical density stratification and wave steepening. In addition, the acoustic spectrum of the oscillations at the locations where magnetic perturbations are observed is broader than that observed at other locations, which suggests an additional forcing driver to the p-modes. Analysis of the photospheric oscillations in the sunspot surroundings also reveals a broader spectrum in between the two opposite polarities of the active region (the leading spot and the trailing opposite polarity plage), and on the same side where magnetic perturbations are observed in the umbra. We suggest that strong photospheric perturbations in between the two polarities are responsible for this broader spectrum of oscillations, with respect to the $p$-mode spectrum, resulting in locally-excited acoustic waves that, after crossing the equipartition layer, located close to the umbra-penumbra boundary at photopheric heights, are converted into magnetic-like waves and steepen due to the strong density gradient., Comment: 9 pages, 7 figures, for publication in A&A

The formation of shocks within the solar atmosphere remains one of the few observable signatures of energy dissipation arising from the plethora of magnetohydrodynamic waves generated close to the solar surface. Active region observations offer exceptional views of wave behavior and its impact on the surrounding atmosphere. The stratified plasma gradients present in the lower solar atmosphere allow for the potential formation of many theorized shock phenomena. In this study, using chromospheric Ca II 854.2nm spectropolarimetric data of a large sunspot, we examine fluctuations in the plasma parameters in the aftermath of powerful shock events that demonstrate polarimetric reversals during their evolution. Modern inversion techniques are employed to uncover perturbations in the temperatures, line-of-sight velocities, and vector magnetic fields occurring across a range of optical depths synonymous with the shock formation. Classification of these non-linear signatures is carried out by comparing the observationally-derived slow, fast, and Alfv\'en shock solutions to the theoretical Rankine-Hugoniot relations. Employing over 200,000 independent measurements, we reveal that the Alfv\'en (intermediate) shock solution provides the closest match between theory and observations at optical depths of log(tau) = -4, consistent with a geometric height at the boundary between the upper photosphere and lower chromosphere. This work uncovers first-time evidence of the manifestation of chromospheric intermediate shocks in sunspot umbrae, providing a new method for the potential thermalization of wave energy in a range of magnetic structures, including pores, magnetic flux ropes, and magnetic bright points., Comment: 17 pages, 9 figures, accepted by ApJ

Magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) Alfv\'en waves have been a focus of laboratory plasma physics and astrophysics for over half a century. Their unique nature makes them ideal energy transporters, and while the solar atmosphere provides preferential conditions for their existence, direct detection has proved difficult as a result of their evolving and dynamic observational signatures. The viability of Alfv\'en waves as a heating mechanism relies upon the efficient dissipation and thermalization of the wave energy, with direct evidence remaining elusive until now. Here we provide the first observational evidence of Alfv\'en waves heating chromospheric plasma in a sunspot umbra through the formation of shock fronts. The magnetic field configuration of the shock environment, alongside the tangential velocity signatures, distinguish them from conventional umbral flashes. Observed local temperature enhancements of 5% are consistent with the dissipation of mode-converted Alfv\'en waves driven by upwardly propagating magneto-acoustic oscillations, providing an unprecedented insight into the behaviour of Alfv\'en waves in the solar atmosphere and beyond., Comment: Letter: 7 pages, 4 figures. Supplementary Material: 22 pages, 10 figures

Chromospheric observations of sunspot umbrae offer an exceptional view of magneto-acoustic shock phenomena and the impact they have on the surrounding magnetically-dominated plasma. We employ simultaneous slit-based spectro-polarimetry and spectral imaging observations of the chromospheric He I 10830{\AA} and Ca II 8542{\AA} lines to examine fluctuations in the umbral magnetic field caused by the steepening of magneto-acoustic waves into umbral flashes. Following the application of modern inversion routines, we find evidence to support the scenario that umbral shock events cause expansion of the embedded magnetic field lines due to the increased adiabatic pressure. The large number statistics employed allow us to calculate the adiabatic index, gamma = 1.12 +/- 0.01, for chromospheric umbral locations. Examination of the vector magnetic field fluctuations perpendicular to the solar normal revealed changes up to ~200 G at the locations of umbral flashes. Such transversal magnetic field fluctuations have not been described before. Through comparisons with non-linear force-free field extrapolations, we find that the perturbations of the transverse field components are orientated in the same direction as the quiescent field geometries. This implies that magnetic field enhancements produced by umbral flashes are directed along the motion path of the developing shock, hence producing relatively small changes, up to a maximum of ~8 degrees, in the inclination and/or azimuthal directions of the magnetic field. Importantly, this work highlights that umbral flashes are able to modify the full vector magnetic field, with the detection of the weaker transverse magnetic field components made possible by high-resolution data combined with modern inversion routines., Comment: 16 pages, 7 figures, accepted for publication in The Astrophysical Journal

We study the temporal evolution of the Na I D1 line profiles in the M3.9 flare SOL2014-06-11T21:03 UT, using high spectral resolution observations obtained with the IBIS instrument on the Dunn Solar Telescope combined with radiative hydrodynamic simulations. Our results show a significant increase in line core and wing intensities during the flare. The analysis of the line profiles from the flare ribbons reveal that the Na I D1 line has a central reversal with excess emission in the blue wing (blue asymmetry). We combine RADYN and RH simulations to synthesise Na I D1 line profiles of the flaring atmosphere and find good agreement with the observations. Heating with a beam of electrons modifies the radiation field in the flaring atmosphere and excites electrons from the ground state $\mathrm{3s~^2S}$ to the first excited state $\mathrm{3p~^2P}$, which in turn modifies relative population of the two states. The change in temperature and the population density of the energy states make the sodium line profile revert from absorption into emission. Analysis of the simulated spectra also reveals that the Na I D1 flare profile asymmetries are produced by the velocity gradients generated %and opacity effects in the lower solar atmosphere., Comment: 7 pages, 8 figures, accepted in ApJ

Sunspots on the surface of the Sun are the observational signatures of intense manifestations of tightly packed magnetic field lines, with near-vertical field strengths exceeding 6,000 G in extreme cases. It is well accepted that both the plasma density and the magnitude of the magnetic field strength decrease rapidly away from the solar surface, making high-cadence coronal measurements through traditional Zeeman and Hanle effects difficult since the observational signatures are fraught with low-amplitude signals that can become swamped with instrumental noise. Magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) techniques have previously been applied to coronal structures, with single and spatially isolated magnetic field strengths estimated as 9-55 G. A drawback with previous MHD approaches is that they rely on particular wave modes alongside the detectability of harmonic overtones. Here we show, for the first time, how omnipresent magneto-acoustic waves, originating from within the underlying sunspot and propagating radially outwards, allow the spatial variation of the local coronal magnetic field to be mapped with high precision. We find coronal magnetic field strengths of 32 +/- 5 G above the sunspot, which decrease rapidly to values of approximately 1 G over a lateral distance of 7000 km, consistent with previous isolated and unresolved estimations. Our results demonstrate a new, powerful technique that harnesses the omnipresent nature of sunspot oscillations to provide magnetic field mapping capabilities close to a magnetic source in the solar corona., Comment: Published in Nature Physics, 12, 179 (2016; DOI:10.1038/nphys3544). 22 pages (Letter + Supplementary Material), including 7 figures

We present observational evidence of compressible magnetohydrodynamic wave modes propagating from the solar photosphere through to the base of the transition region in a solar magnetic pore. High cadence images were obtained simultaneously across four wavelength bands using the Dunn Solar Telescope. Employing Fourier and wavelet techniques, sausage-mode oscillations displaying significant power were detected in both intensity and area fluctuations. The intensity and area fluctuations exhibit a range of periods from 181-412s, with an average period ~290s, consistent with the global p-mode spectrum. Intensity and area oscillations present in adjacent bandpasses were found to be out-of-phase with one another, displaying phase angles of 6.12 degrees, 5.82 degrees and 15.97 degrees between 4170 Angstrom continuum - G-band, G-band - Na I D1 and Na I D1 - Ca II K heights, respectively, reiterating the presence of upwardly-propagating sausage-mode waves. A phase relationship of ~0 degrees between same-bandpass emission and area perturbations of the pore best categorises the waves as belonging to the `slow' regime of a dispersion diagram. Theoretical calculations reveal that the waves are surface modes, with initial photospheric energies in excess of 35000 W/m^2. The wave energetics indicate a substantial decrease in energy with atmospheric height, confirming that magnetic pores are able to transport waves that exhibit appreciable energy damping, which may release considerable energy into the local chromospheric plasma., Comment: 14 pages, 5 figures, accepted into ApJ

The chromosphere is a thin layer of the solar atmosphere that bridges the relatively cool photosphere and the intensely heated transition region and corona. Compressible and incompressible waves propagating through the chromosphere can supply significant amounts of energy to the interface region and corona. In recent years an abundance of high-resolution observations from state-of-the-art facilities have provided new and exciting ways of disentangling the characteristics of oscillatory phenomena propagating through the dynamic chromosphere. Coupled with rapid advancements in magnetohydrodynamic wave theory, we are now in an ideal position to thoroughly investigate the role waves play in supplying energy to sustain chromospheric and coronal heating. Here, we review the recent progress made in characterising, categorising and interpreting oscillations manifesting in the solar chromosphere, with an impetus placed on their intrinsic energetics., Comment: 48 pages, 25 figures, accepted into Space Science Reviews

We present a Bayesian-odds-ratio-based algorithm for detecting stellar flares in light curve data. We assume flares are described by a model in which there is a rapid rise with a half-Gaussian profile, followed by an exponential decay. Our signal model also contains a polynomial background model. This is required to fit underlying light curve variations that are expected in the data, which could otherwise partially mimic a flare. We characterise the false alarm probability and efficiency of this method and compare it with a simpler thresholding method based on that used in Walkowicz et al (2011). We find our method has a significant increase in detection efficiency for low signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) flares. For a conservative false alarm probability our method can detect 95% of flares with S/N less than ~20, as compared to S/N of ~25 for the simpler method. As an example we have applied our method to a selection of stars in Kepler Quarter 1 data. The method finds 687 flaring stars with a total of 1873 flares after vetos have been applied. For these flares we have characterised their durations and and signal-to-noise ratios., Comment: Accepted for MNRAS. The code used for the analysis can be found at https://github.com/BayesFlare/bayesflare/releases/tag/v1.0.0