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Research has indicated that school aged (6-16 years) versions of cognitive assessment instruments have varying levels of linguistic demand, which could impact assessment results for placement purposes. However, a significant limitation to this research is the fact that it has not been replicated with cognitive assessment instruments used in preschool populations. As such, the purpose of this study is to address this gap in the research literature by examining linguistic demands of cognitive test batteries used for preschool aged children. The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II), Woodcock Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities Fourth Edition (WJ Cog-IV), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Fourth Edition were used for this examination. Overall results demonstrated that the oral directions of preschool assessments have relatively low linguistic demands. However, several subtests on WJ Cog-IV have high Complexity, Verbosity, and Total Demand indices, which can pose difficulty for students with limited word knowledge. Furthermore, the KABC-II was the least demanding assessment from a linguistic standpoint. Implications are discussed in terms of the assessment of early childhood populations.

The suspension of Black boys from school is a longstanding issue that places them at increased risk for negative academic and social-emotional outcomes. While risk factors for suspension are often documented, concurrently examining protective factors such as school belonging and self-esteem occurs infrequently. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between Body Mass Index (BMI), school belonging, self-esteem, race, gender, and school suspension. Results from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) indicated that BMI was a significant predictor of school suspension overall, but not for Black boys. Furthermore our hypotheses were not supported in that regardless of the levels of school belonging for Black boys, their levels of school suspension were not impacted as was the case with their peers. So it was not that they were big, just that they were Black as it relates to school suspension and Black boys. Implications are discussed in terms of the improving outcomes of Black boys.

The purpose of this article is to discuss issues of language, specifically African American Vernacular English (AAVE), as it relates to the reading performance of African American children. Previous research on the science of reading provides a research-based framework that is a starting point for evidence-based research that can be used to improve the reading outcomes of African American children. School psychology literature is limited in its inclusion of issues posed by deficit perspectives of AAVE with Black children and reading achievement. Given that practicing school psychologists spend significant portions of their time conducting assessments related to identifying and remediating reading problems, an increased awareness on how AAVE can impact African American children's reading performance is necessary. Implications for research and practice will be discussed, such as inclusion of instruments to differentiate between reading difficulties and dialect differences (i.e., Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation).

Albert Beckham, who was the first Black school psychologist in the U.S., frequently used intelligence tests with Black children. This usage required clinical decision making to explain the results obtained from psychoeducational assessments. In their discussion of this aspect of Beckham's work, introduce the concept of Culturally Relevant Clinical Judgement. This paper discusses issues related to the continued use of cognitive assessment instruments as it relates to clinical judgment in special education eligibility decision-making in comparison to alternatives such as Response-to-Intervention (RtI).

Black boys generally have the most disparate outcomes (i.e. exclusionary punishment and office referrals) in regard to discipline in schools, which necessitates the need for interventions to help alleviate this issue. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a video self-modeling (VSM) intervention on students' challenging behaviors in an urban school setting. Utilizing an A-B-A-B withdrawal design, four Black boys in elementary school participated in the intervention. Results of visual analysis and Tau-U (Zion -1, p = 0.0018; DeAndre -1, p = 0.0027; and Malik = -0.6775, p = 0.0343) indicated significant and positive effects of VSM in relation to students' behavior. Furthermore, teachers found the intervention to be acceptable based on the Intervention Rating Profile-15 (IRP-15). Future research and implications for the use of video self-modeling in urban schools are discussed.

Background: The course on cognitive assessment is mandatory for all school psychology programs. However, there have been no published studies that have explored learning objectives for this course. Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine content covered and complexity of learning objectives in the cognitive assessment course. Method: Five raters coded 90 syllabi from school psychology cognitive assessment courses across the United States on a sample of six American Psychological Association assessment-related standards and on complexity using the six Bloom's Taxonomy levels. Results: The majority of objectives were addressing lower levels of complexity as measured by Bloom's Taxonomy with few syllabi including learning objectives addressing a wide range of levels. Based on the analysis of objectives by the sample of Standards, learning objectives most frequently addressed administration accuracy and test selection, whereas integrating results and linking to recommendations were often missing. Conclusion: The learning objectives included in syllabi ranged in quantity, complexity, and content but focused on lower complexity skills. Learning objectives in cognitive assessment courses do not reflect the diverse assessment-related practice demands of school psychologists. Teaching Implications: To align training with future practice, instructors are advised to review learning objectives with attention to complexity and content standards.

The term social justice is frequently utilized in the field of school psychology. However, a systematic review of this framework in terms of its relationship to research and outcomes has not been undertaken. As such, the purpose of this study was to conduct a bibliometric analysis and case study review of research literature associated with the term social justice in the field of school psychology. To accomplish this, the following school psychology journals were utilized: "Contemporary School Psychology, Psychology in the Schools," "International Journal of School and Educational Psychology," "Journal of Applied School Psychology," "Journal of School Psychology, School Psychology (Quarterly)," "School Psychology Review," "School Psychology International," and the "Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation." Based on a 40-year timeframe (1980-2020) a total of 28 articles were found. Social justice topical articles demonstrated an increasing trend during this period, with the dominant research theme being how to define the term social justice. Surprisingly, when comparing published research on social justice to the current initiatives being implemented by practice organizations such as the NASP Social Justice Committee, there is evidence of a rare "practice-to-research" gap. Meaning that practice is tackling topics (e.g., White privilege and school-to-prison pipeline) that are not present in the social justice research literature. Implications are discussed in terms of encouraging proponents of social justice to begin to expand their research beyond definition rhetoric to include outcomes associated with applied psychological outcomes.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the factorial invariance of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--Fifth Edition (WISC-V) between genders in a sample of Black students in an urban, public school district. Few researchers test the validity of cognitive assessments on Black samples and even fewer do so utilizing samples other than those used during standardization. Results from confirmatory factor analytic techniques and multi-group structural equation modeling using AMOS indicated that although the subtests of the WISC-V are measuring similar underlying constructs across genders, the intercepts differ on the Similarities and Coding subtests. This indicates that the scores are not necessarily interpretable at the same level in the domains of Verbal Comprehension and Working Memory, respectively. Furthermore, based on our sample of Black children, scores derived from the WISC-V should be interpreted with caution, as the five-factor model prescribed by the publishers did not fit. Implications for equitable cognitive assessment procedures, as well as noteworthy areas of additional research on cognitive assessment validity for Black children and samples not used during standardization are discussed.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--Fifth edition (WISC-V). As such, this is the first study that will examine the factor structure of the WISC-V in a non-standardization sample of Black children. Utilizing confirmatory and exploratory factor analytic techniques in AMOS our results indicated that a four-factor model fits the data better than five-factor solution that was proposed by the test developers, for the Black sample. Furthermore, two subtests, Picture Span and Figure Weights, were not invariant by race, which indicates that these measures of Fluid Reasoning and Working Memory operate differently for Black and White students and are not consistent with differences in scores on these subtests. Research indicates that these two subtests are the most demanding from a linguistic standpoint, which necessitates further research on how directions are administered. Implications will be discussed in terms school psychologists increasing the rigor of their research practices by decreasing the use of standardization samples and conducting more research with Black children.

The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) is a source that is used to report the empirical evidence for interventions. The purpose of this review was to understand the presence of Black children in research that has been classified as Meeting the Standards With and Without Reservations by the WWC. Results indicated that 16 interventions met the WWC standards with specific outcomes focusing on positive behavioral skills, social outcomes, change in values and attitudes, and school engagement. These interventions resulted in 22 peer-reviewed articles that were based on a group design, with 26 publications utilizing single-case methodology. From a methodological standpoint, none of the articles in this review analyzed results separately by race. Relatedly none of the reviewed interventions that meet standards or meet standards without reservations were culturally modified which has proven to be more beneficial than standard practice. Furthermore, the articles based on the interventions did not address specific causes of disparate behavioral outcomes in schools (e.g., perceived disrespect, defiance, insubordination, and disobedience) identified in the research base. Implications are discussed in terms of the validity of WWC studies as they relate to Black children.

Mentoring has been identified as an essential component in the development and success of future faculty. As such, the purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of the mentoring experiences of graduate students enrolled in school psychology programs. Additionally, we wanted to determine if differences were present in the mentoring experiences of self-identified racial minority students and their White peers given the lack of diversity among school psychology faculty. Quantitative analyses indicated that students enrolled in school psychology programs are fairly satisfied with their mentoring experiences. However, respondents who completed the open-ended questions indicated that they had difficulty accessing their mentor, they wanted more mentoring on careers in academia, and that they desired more support for conducting research and teaching. Therefore, there are several aspects of mentoring that need to be improved if the field of school psychology wants to increase the number of students who will peruse a career in higher education.

The importance of identifying and building on individual strengths has been a key component of many psychoeducational theories and modalities focused on developing interventions. However, program training in this growing area is not well known. As such, this is the first study designed to ascertain the American Psychological Association-accredited psychology programs strength-based training practices. Results show that a majority of faculty (83.9% of school psychology, 48.4% of counseling psychology, and 50.0% clinical psychology) thinks that strength-based practices are very beneficial; however, training in these methodologies has not kept pace with faculty beliefs, with over 60% of faculty not being familiar with strength-based manualized interventions. Implications are discussed in terms of improving the research base to alleviate trainers' concerns and challenges that impede their implementation of dual models of mental health in their psychology programs.

New estimates report that Black girls are facing an educational crisis with regard to disproportionate disciplinary practices and academics. To date, there has been very limited research with regard to school-based interventions that have been designed to help Black girls explore both their cultural and gender identity. This is problematic because Black girls are constantly faced with the task of disproving negative characterizations (i.e., angry, loud, and aggressive) and advocating for equitable treatment from teachers and school administrators. These negative characteristics often translate to lower academic expectations, harsher punishments, and juvenile justice involvement. To address this problem, a single-subject study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of implementing an 8-week cultural-empowerment program based on the Sisters of Nia curriculum. Results based on visual analysis, percentage of nonoverlapping data, and Tau-U all show that the Sisters of Nia intervention led to a significant reduction in verbally aggressive behavior for all four participants. These findings serve as further support to incorporate culturally based interventions at the school level.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of a social emotional learning curriculum, "Brothers of Ujima," for children at risk for being referred for placement in emotional and behavioral support classrooms. The "Brothers of Ujima" is a strength-based culturally relevant intervention for African American boys aged 10-14. The purpose of the 14-week program is to strengthen positive self-esteem, ethnic identity, and prosocial behaviors while reducing negative behaviors among boys. The curriculum objectives are for boys to critically assess myths and stereotypes of African Americans presented in the media, to help boys develop creative thinking and leadership skills, to increase appreciation of African and African American culture, and to learn adaptive coping skills when faced with discrimination. This study is the first to evaluate this curriculum in a school-based setting. Fourteen 6th- and 7th-grade students participated in the intervention. Results show that males demonstrated an increase in Afrocentric values, but not in racial identity or resiliency. Teacher interviews showed that the intervention was feasible for a school setting; however, modifications to format and lessons content should be undertaken for future studies.

The purpose of this study was to understand academic leadership's views of the field of school psychology. This is the first study that has attempted to incorporate the views of historically Black college and university (HBCU) Psychology Department Chairs' regarding the field of school psychology and the potential development of school psychology programs at HBCUs. The results indicated that Department Chairs at HBCUs are not recommending the field of school psychology to their students based on a variety of reasons related to their views of the field (e.g., lack of focus on Black research issues). Despite the shortage of school psychologists and ample career opportunities, Department chairs in our sample do not recommend the field of school psychology as a first option graduate school choice. Implications are discussed in terms of increasing the number of African Americans in the field of school psychology.

The purpose of the present study was to assess the efficacy of a culturally adapted version of the Strong Start intervention program on the social-emotional outcomes of African American male students. Externalizing behavior problems of children, specifically African American males, are of great concern for schools. Punitive discipline polices such as expulsion and suspension have proved to be ineffective and harmful. Consequently, school-based social-emotional learning (SEL) interventions have been proposed to teach children coping skills that can help them increase positive social behaviors and emotional regulation. Sixty-one African American male students enrolled in an urban elementary school participated in this intervention. This study employed a randomized delayed treatment control design. Results indicated positive effects in the areas of self-regulation and self-competence. However the intervention did not have an impact on student's empathy, responsibility, or externalizing behavior. Implications are discussed in terms of developing culturally relevant school-based interventions for African American males.

The recruitment of culturally and linguistically diverse students to graduate programs is critical to the overall growth and development of school psychology as a field. Program websites serve as an effective recruitment tool for attracting prospective students, yet there is limited research on how school psychology programs use their websites to recruit diverse students. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether school psychology program websites include sufficient levels of diversity-related content critical for attracting diverse applicants. The website content of 250 professional psychology programs (165 school psychology training programs and 85 clinical and counseling psychology programs) were examined for the presence of themes of diversity and multiculturalism that prospective racially/ethnically and linguistically diverse students deem important for selecting a graduate program. Results indicated that school psychology programs had less diversity-related content on their program's website relative to clinical and counseling psychology programs. Implications for improving recruitment of racially/ethnically and linguistically diverse students through websites are discussed.

The purpose of this project was to investigate the effectiveness of Check-in/Check-out (CICO), a targeted behavioral intervention, on reducing the problem behaviors of kindergarten students in an urban setting. Participants were referred by their teacher for exhibiting disruptive classroom behaviors, which resulted in classroom removal. Results indicate that CICO led to a reduction in off-task behaviors and an increase of on-task behavior for both students. This study provides support for the practicality of school support personnel as the primary interventionist using CICO.

Previous research has demonstrated that informant disagreement is common with the use of rating scales to assess problem behavior in school-age populations. However, much less is known about this phenomenon in preschool populations. This is important because the accurate assessment of problem behavior in preschool is complex due to the rapid developmental shifts during this period. As such, the purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of students at risk of behavior problems and to see whether these problems varied as a function of informant and ecological characteristics. Using the Behavior Assessment System for Children--Second Edition, we analyzed parent and teacher ratings for 320 preschool children. Results indicated that parent and teacher ratings were very similar, with males being rated as more at risk of having attention problems and social skill deficits in comparison with females. No differences were noted in at-risk status by ethnic group membership. Conversely, significant and consistent parent and teacher ratings were noted by socioeconomic status (e.g., parent education level). Implications are discussed for the prevention of problem behavior in preschool. (Contains 3 tables.)

Research has indicated that school aged (6–16 years) versions of cognitive assessment instruments have varying levels of linguistic demand, which could impact assessment results for placement purposes. However, a significant limitation to this research is the fact that it has not been replicated with cognitive assessment instruments used in preschool populations. As such, the purpose of this study is to address this gap in the research literature by examining linguistic demands of cognitive test batteries used for preschool aged children. The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC‐II), Woodcock Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities Fourth Edition (WJ Cog‐IV), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Fourth Edition were used for this examination. Overall results demonstrated that the oral directions of preschool assessments have relatively low linguistic demands. However, several subtests on WJ Cog‐IV have high Complexity, Verbosity, and Total Demand indices, which can pose difficulty for students with limited word knowledge. Furthermore, the KABC‐II was the least demanding assessment from a linguistic standpoint. Implications are discussed in terms of the assessment of early childhood populations. Practitioner points: 1.Oral directions of preschool assessments generally have low linguistic demand.2.The Woodcock Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities (WJ Cog‐IV) had the highest linguistic demand.3.The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC‐II) had the lowest linguistic demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Response to Intervention (RtI) consists of multi-tiered instructional delivery systems in which educators provide research-based interventions to students that increase in intensity depending on students' instructional response. RtI is currently being implemented in schools across the United States. RtI's shift away from standardized testing offers new opportunities to consider the ways in which African American students are serviced within the general education setting, the assessment methods deemed appropriate when considering African American students for special education under the Specific Learning Disability category, and how multi-tiered intervention can address the overrepresentation of African American students in special education. This article provides an overview of a three-tiered RtI model, explores the promises and challenges of using RtI with African American students, and delineates a research and direct service delivery agenda to facilitate the development of RtI models that consider the educational needs of African American students. (Contains 1 table and 2 figures.)

Drawing from the National Center for Early Development and Learning (NCEDL) Multi-State Study of Prekindergarten and the State-Wide Early Education Programs Study (SWEEP), this study examined the effects of classroom and teacher variables on social-emotional development in prekindergarten. Results indicated that prekindergarten teachers rated males significantly higher in behavioral problems and lower in social competence than females. However, when teacher-child ethnic match was taken into consideration these differences were not present. In contrast to existing evidence, African American males in particular were no more likely to have teachers who report behavior problems than their Latino and White male peers. Implications for the prevention of behavioral problems are discussed. (Contains 5 tables.)

This research examined the scope of parental involvement at school entry and sought to determine what, if any, differences existed between ethnic groups. In addition, the researcher attempted to determine if parental involvement was related to academic achievement at school entry. Participants were the African American and European American parents and children who participated in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K; US Department of Education, 2005). Results from this project suggest that ethnic differences in parental involvement are present at school entry. In particular, European American parents were more like to be involved in home-based parental involvement activities such as reading to their children while African American parents were more likely to be involved in school related activities such as volunteering at school. In addition, the analysis suggests that parent involvement was only slightly related to reading achievement at school entry. The study is discussed in terms of its implications for future research towards narrowing the achievement gap. (Contains 4 tables.)

Data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten cohort (ECLS-K) were used to examine the relationship between cultural capital transmission and reading achievement within a nationally representative sample of 5th grade African American males. Logistic regression techniques were used to examine several differences between high- and low-achieving African American male students. Regression analyses controlling for 3rd grade achievement, family structure, socioeconomic status, and parent involvement. The findings indicated that parent supervised artistic activities were related to positive academic development, whereas artistic activities supervised by other adults were not. Implications are discussed in terms or increasing the reading achievement levels of African American males. (Contains 3 tables.)

This study investigates Historically Black Colleges and University (HBCU) students' and faculties' knowledge related to school psychology. A total of 165 students and 14 faculty members completed inventories that assessed the understanding and views of various psychological disciplines. Results indicated that HBCU students rated their perceived knowledge of school psychology significantly lower than all psychological disciplines. In addition, these students have significantly fewer sources of information for school psychology than comparable disciplines. Although more than 90% of students stated that they would attend graduate school, the majority was only somewhat interested in school psychology as a career choice. Furthermore, HBCU psychology faculty members stated that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists do not actively recruit or provide information to their students. Results are discussed in terms of increasing the number of African American school psychologists. (Contains 4 tables.)

Albert Sidney Beckham was the first African American to hold the title school psychologist. This article examines the life and professional career of Beckham in the context of his contributions to the field of school psychology. It explores his graduate education, the founding of Howard University's Psychological Laboratory and his research and practice as a school psychologist at the Institute for Juvenile Research and Chicago Bureau of Child Study. While much has been written on individual contributors to the field of school psychology, there is virtually no mention of any practitioners of colour. Thus, the purpose of this article is to begin a process of inclusion by mainstreaming the work of a pioneer in the field of school psychology.

The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the state of multilevel modeling in the field of school psychology. The authors provide a systematic assessment of published research of multilevel modeling studies in 5 journals devoted to the research and practice of school psychology. In addition, a practical example from the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study--Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) is presented to help school psychologists become familiar with the basic terminology and procedures used in multilevel modeling studies. Implications for statistical reform and future research practices are discussed. (Contains 2 tables.)

The purpose of this study was to investigate what factors influenced students to enter the field of school psychology. Although numerous studies have documented the thoughts and perspectives of practitioners regarding why they have chosen to become school psychologists, attempts to recruit and retain an adequate number of school psychology practitioners and researchers have shown limited success. A national sample of 307 school psychology graduate students responded to a survey designed to measure issues related to the current state of professional practice, the influence of parental education, and professional organization recruitment. Results indicated that working with children and personal experiences within the school system were highly related to participant's decisions to become school psychologists. In addition, doctoral level and nondoctoral level students present similar reasons for entering the field. This research is discussed in terms of its implications for future research and the current shortage of school psychology practitioners and faculty. (Contains 2 tables.)