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Chondrules probably formed during a small window of time $\sim$1-4 Ma after CAIs, when most solid matter in the asteroid belt was already in the form of km-sized planetesimals. They are unlikely, therefore, to be ``building blocks" of planets or abundant on asteroids, but more likely to be a product of energetic events common in the asteroid belt at that epoch. Laboratory experiments indicate that they could have formed when solids of primitive composition were heated to temperatures of $\sim$1600 K and then cooled for minutes to hours. A plausible heat source for this is magma, which is likely to have been abundant in the asteroid belt at that time, and only that time, due to the trapping of $^{26}$Al decay energy in planetesimal interiors. Here we propose that chondrules formed during low-speed ($\lesssim1$ km s$^{-1}$) collisions between large planetesimals when heat from their interiors was released into a stream of primitive debris from their surfaces. Heating would have been essentially instantaneous and cooling would have been on the dynamical time scale, 1/$\sqrt(G \rho) \sim 30$ minutes, where $\rho$ is the mean density of a planetesimal. Many of the heated fragments would have remained gravitationally bound to the merged object and could have suffered additional heating events as they orbited and ultimately accreted to its surface. This is a hybrid of the splash and flyby models: we propose that it was the energy released from a body's molten interior, not its mass, that was responsible for chondrule formation by heating primitive debris that emerged from the collision., Comment: 17 pages, 3 figures. Accepted for publication in Meteoritics and Planetary Science

We use the known surface boulder-size distribution of the C-type rubble pile asteroid Ryugu (NEA 162173) to determine its macroporosity, assuming it is a homogeneous granular aggregate. We show that the volume-frequency distribution of its boulders, cobbles and pebbles, is well represented by a lognormal function with $\sigma = 2.4 \pm 0.1$ and $\mu = 0.2 \pm 0.05$. Application of linear-mixture packing theory yields a value for the macroporosity of $\phi = 0.14 \pm 0.04$. Given its low bulk density of 1.19 gm cm$^{-3}$, this implies an average density for Ryugu's rocks of $1.38 \pm 0.07$ gm cm$^{-3}$ throughout its volume, consistent with a recent determination for surface boulders based on their thermal properties. This supports the spectrum-based argument that IDP's may be the best analog material available on Earth and suggests that high-density, well-lithified objects such as chondrules and chondrule-bearing chondrites may be rare on Ryugu. Implications of this result for the origin of chondrules, a long-standing problem in cosmochemistry, are discussed. We propose that chondrules and most chondrites formed together in rare lithification events, which occurred during the accretion of chondritic envelopes to large, differentiated planetesimals at a time when they were still hot from $^{26}$Al decay., Comment: 24 pages, 7 figures. Accepted for publication in the Planetary Science Journal

We propose that chondrules and chondrites formed together during a brief radiative heating event caused by the close encounter of a small (m to km-scale), primitive planetesimal (SPP) with incandescent lava on the surface of a large (100 km-scale) differentiated planetesimal (LDP). In our scenario, chondrite lithification occurs by hot isostatic pressing (HIP) simultaneously with chondrule formation, in accordance with the constraints of complementarity and cluster chondrites. Thermal models of LDPs formed near t=0 predict that there will be a very narrow window of time, coincident with the chondrule formation epoch, during which crusts are thin enough to frequently rupture by impact, volcanism and/or crustal foundering, releasing hot magma to their surfaces. The heating curves we calculate are more gradual and symmetric than the "flash heating" characteristic of nebular models, but in agreement with the constraints of experimental petrology. The SPP itself is a plausible source of the excess O, Na and Si vapor pressure (compared to a solar nebula environment) that is required by chondrule observations. Laboratory experiments demonstrate that FeO-poor porphyritic olivine chondrules, the most voluminous type of chondrule, can be made using heating and cooling curves predicted by the "flyby" model. If chondrules are a by-product of chondrite lithification, then their high volume abundance within well-lithified chondritic material is not evidence that they were once widespread within the Solar System. Relatively rare events, such as the flybys modeled here, could account for their abundance in the meteorite record., Comment: Accepted for publication in Icarus

We propose that chondrules are formed by radiative heating of pre-existing dust clumps during close fly-bys of planetesimals with incandescent lava at their surfaces. We show that the required temperatures and cooling rates are easily achieved in this scenario and discuss how it is consistent with bulk aspects of chondritic meteorites, including complementarity and the co-mingling of FeO-poor and FeO-rich chondrules., Comment: Accepted Nov. 16, 2015 for publication as a Research Note in Icarus

Classical linear wave superposition produces the appearance of interference. This observation can be interpreted in two equivalent ways: one can assume that interference is an illusion because input components remain unperturbed, or that interference is real and input components undergo energy redistribution. Both interpretations entail the same observable consequences at the macroscopic level, but the first approach is considerably more popular. This preference was established before the emergence of quantum mechanics. Unfortunately, it requires a non-classical underlying mechanism and fails to explain well-known microscopic observations. Classical physics appears to collapse at the quantum level. On the other hand, quantum superposition can be described as a classical process if the second alternative is adopted. The gap between classical mechanics and quantum mechanics is an interpretive problem., Comment: 25 pages, 12 figures, PowerPoint slideshow available on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YH72FLaJe5Y