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Research has reported the associations between objective or subjective neighborhood greenness and health, with low agreement between the greenness scores. College students are prone to poor health, and data are lacking on home and university environments. We studied the agreement between greenness parameters and the associations of objective greenness with health in different locations. Three hundred and seventy-seven college students were recruited, with a mean age of 24 years, in the city of Graz, Austria. Objective and perceived greenness was assessed at home and at university. Health measures included the WHO-5 questionnaire for mental health, the IPAQ questionnaire (short) for physical activity and sedentariness, and body mass index. Per location, quintile pairs of objective and perceived greenness were classified into underestimates, correct estimates or overestimates. Interrater reliability and correlation analyses revealed agreement between greenness scores at home but not at university. ANOVA models only showed poorer mental health for students underestimating greenness at university ( M = 51.38, SD = 2.84) compared to those with correct estimates ( M = 61.03, SD = 1.85). Agreement between greenness scores at home but not at university was obtained, and mental health was related to the perception of greenness at university. We conclude that reliable and corresponding methods for greenness scores need to be developed., Competing Interests: “The authors declare no conflict of interest.”

The present study evaluates the usability of available and low-cost geodata, including topographic maps, remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) data, for high mountain research activities. The challenges for geospatial technologies in a high mountain environment are discussed. We present two case studies of high mountain environments in Khumbu Himal and Mount Aconcagua (Argentina/Chile), where the applicability and integration of various geodata sets have been applied. Important topics documented and discussed include topographic accuracy, glacier information extraction, multitemporal investigations, digital elevation model (DEM) and image map generation. The study indicates that accuracy analyses of available geodata are mandatory for achieving the requirements of geoscience research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The worldwide trend of migration from the peripheral rural areas ("rural exodus") to the central areas of a region raises the question of how to deal with it in some regions of Austria. On the one hand, the loss of population always represents a loss of importance for a municipality, whereas on the other hand, a strong influx puts a strain on the central areas and the increased land consumption poses a challenge for the environment and spatial planners. Depending on the region, this can have various causes, whereby specific pull factors of the central areas as well as a set of push factors of the surroundings are relevant. Within the framework of a study lasting several years and using a mix of selected methods, an attempt was made to work out or characterize those aspects of the female rural lifeworld that represent the decisive factors for shaping the further life paths of women. In this context, the economic structure and organization proved to be particularly important factors for successful economic and land use development, sufficient natural resources, and environmental quality for housing and quality of life as well as a potential for a leisure economy, good accessibility, and infrastructure in terms of transport development and information and telecommunication technologies (distance to the higher-level economic centers is a significant obstacle to development). Finally, cultural values, social trends, and human capital with the existing gender-specific role patterns also play a certain role in the consideration of migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unmanned aerial systems (UASs) offer a less invasive solution for accessing remote areas and sites, making them valuable in Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operation (AECO). Their ease of use, ability to reach previously inaccessible areas, and sensor integration provide new project perspectives. Augmented Reality (AR), which allows for the real-time insertion of virtual elements into physical spaces, is also being explored in the AECO industry. Recognizing the potential of these technologies, this research aims to integrate them for on-site building model visualization. This article presents the development of resources to visualize building design implementation in AR, which is supported by UASs through georeferencing. The system development process included establishing the software architecture, creating interface prototypes, and constructing the model. It was possible to visualize the building model in AR within the real world; however, limitations were identified regarding the UAS used and its Application Programming Interface, which affected the aircraft's programmed trajectory. The contribution of this paper lies in exploring the utilization of georeferenced AR enabled by UAS for visualizing architectural designs on site, detailing the steps and strategies employed to achieve this, highlighting the limitations of the chosen approach, and proposing potential solutions to the issues identified in the research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing (RS) technologies are essential for safeguarding cultural heritage sites from geo-hydrogeological threats. Advances in RS methods have improved the accuracy and managing of 3D datasets, creating a growing need for efficient data analysis in geo-hazards prevention. This paper presents two archaeological sites where a geo-hazards assessment was conducted: Hegra (Al-Hijr / Madā> in Ṣāliḥ) and Dadan in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), AlUla region. Hegra is the KSA's first UNESCO World Heritage site, while Dadan is the most significant site in the country. These case studies confirm the key role of RS survey outputs in evaluating geo-hazards at rock-carved heritage sites. The integration of on-site surveys with RS methods, especially ALS, TLS and UAV-DP, quickly provides accurate point cloud data for geo-hazards assessment. Additionally, using explainable AI algorithms speeds up the classification of geometrical features, enhancing knowledge and enabling reliable, fast and repeatable monitoring in restoration planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we utilized a feature optimization method combining texture and topographical factors with the random forest (RF) approach to identify changes in the extent of the debris cover around the Tianshan Tomur Peak between 1989 and 2022. Based on Sentinel-1 image data, we extracted glacier flow velocities using an offset tracking method and conducted a long-term analysis of flow velocities in combination with existing datasets. The debris identification results for 2022 showed that the debris-covered area in the study region was 409.2 km2, constituting 22.8% of the total glacier area. Over 34 years, the area of debris cover expanded by 69.4 km2, reflecting a growth rate of 20.0%. Analysis revealed that glaciers in the Tomur Peak area have been decelerating at an overall rate of −4.0% per decade, with the complexity of the glacier bed environment and the instability of the glacier's internal structure contributing to significant seasonal and interannual variability in the movement speeds of individual glaciers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research indicates that exposure to green space may have positive effects on the mental health of students, potentially mediated by factors such as environmental satisfaction and social cohesion. However, the specific impact of green space exposure on students' mental health during the COVID-19 campus lockdowns unexplored. To investigate this relationship, a survey was conducted via social media among 346 current students residing on a locked-down campus, assessing their mental well-being, green space satisfaction, social environment satisfaction, subjective exposure and objective exposure to green space. A structural equation model (SEM) was employed to examine the relationships among various dimensions of green space exposure, satisfaction and students' mental well-being. The findings indicate that subjective exposure to green space has a positive impact on mental well-being and indirectly through social environment satisfaction. Additionally, objective exposure could indirectly influence mental well-being through green space satisfaction and social environment satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence from studies in the global north has shown the beneficial effects of green spaces (GS) for our psychological and physiological health. In this study, we examine whether the connection between GS, wellbeing, and restoration is also applicable to low/middle-income countries (LMICs), using Tanzania as a case study. During May–July 2021, an online survey was conducted among 108 students and/or staff of the University of Dar es Salaam. Information was provided regarding exposure to campus's green spaces (CGSs) measured by the NDVI and subjective questions relevant to accessibility/availability of CGS, duration and frequency of visits, as well as perceived greenness. Self-reported questions were also used for assessing the quality of CGSs and motives for using them. Mental wellbeing and restoration were measured with the Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Short Scale ((S)WEMWBS) and the Restoration Outcome Scale (ROS), respectively, while the Nature Relatedness Scale (NR-6) was used to determine the feelings and thoughts of our participants towards nature. Generalized linear regression indicated a positive relationship between the need to be close to nature and relaxation as motivators for visiting CG; (S)WEMWBS (p < 0.05). The same correlation was observed for the ROS (p < 0.01). The ROS was also positively associated with the NDVI (p < 0.01), age group of 18–25 (p < 0.05), and employment status (full time p < 0.01, part time p < 0.05). Our findings confirm that GS can be considered an effective tool for promoting SDG 3 and SDG 11 in LMICs. More importantly, urban planners should focus on the motives for using such places in order to make them inclusive and multifunctional. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Jostedalsbreen is the largest ice cap in Norway and mainland Europe. Rapid retreat of many of its outlet glaciers since the 2000s has led to the formation of several glacial lakes. Processes causing the formation and expansion of glacial lakes and their interaction with a glacier and terminal moraine have not been widely addressed yet. In this study, we investigate the degradation of the front of the southeast‐facing outlet glacier Austerdalsbreen. Based on a variety of remotely sensed data (UAV‐based and airborne orthophotos and DEMs, satellite images), we analyze the coincident glacial and proglacial changes of Austerdalsbreen and quantify the evolution of this transition zone during the last decades. In particular, we focus on the short‐term evolution of the glacial lake since 2010, we examine the context of a glacier advance in the 1990s, and we report long‐term changes by utilizing 1960s imagery. We discuss the evolution and conditions of Austerdalsbreen compared to other outlet glaciers of Jostedalsbreen. Overall, the glacier terminus has experienced a recession in the last decades. The 1990s terminus advance was more restricted than at other nearby outlet glaciers due to glacier surface debris cover, which is a critical factor for the glacier and lake evolution. However, in the most recent period, since 2012, a distinct expansion of a glacial lake is quantifiable. Since the rates of glacier surface lowering also considerably increased since approximately 2017 and the glacier retreated since the beginning of the 2000s with a clear maximum length decrease in 2015, we interpret the recently formed glacial lake as a contributory factor of glacial changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In tectonically active mountain regions, the thinning of alpine glaciers due to climate change favors the development of debris covered glaciers. This debris layer significantly modifies a glacier's melt depending on the debris thickness and therefore modifies its evolution. Debris thermal conductivity is a critical parameter for calculating ice melt beneath a debris layer. The most commonly used method to calculate apparent thermal conductivity of supraglacial debris layers is based on an estimate of volumetric heat capacity of the debris and simple heat diffusion principles presented by Conway and Rasmussen (2000). The analysis of heat diffusion requires a vertical array of temperature measurements through the supraglacial debris cover. This study explores the effect of the temporal and spatial sampling interval, and method on the thermal diffusivity values derived using this method. Results show that increasing temporal and spatial sampling intervals increase truncation errors and therefore systematically underestimate values of thermal diffusivity. Also, the thermistor precision, the shape of the diurnal temperature cycle, and vertical thermistor displacement result in systematic errors. Overall these systematic errors would result in an underestimation of glacier ice melt under a debris layer. We have developed a best practice guideline to help other researchers to investigate the effect of the sampling interval on their calculated sub-debris ice melt and better plan future measurement campaigns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distributed and collaborative CAD recently gained great attention as a digital geodesign information exchange and management ecosystem, operating in a reliable, transparent, and secure way (CAD-Blockchain integration). Temporal-sensitive tree simulation, in collaborative design environments, offers advantages in the context of smart planning for virtual parks and forests, while DLT/Blockchain technology significantly reduces overhead and tree-modeling transaction costs, eliminates the need for third parties or middlemen to verify transactions, and provides data integrity and information confidence. A proof-of-concept 2.5D tree architecture and Blockchain integration technique was presented as a low-cost distributed and collaborative engineering case study that affects the digital landscape architecture design and monitoring infrastructure. As important findings were recorded, the add-in planning intelligence, the superior data integrity, and confidence, the superiority in terms of time and cost, as well as the satisfactory tree modeling accuracy for smart forest and landscape architecture applications, compared to traditional 3D tree modeling methods (laser scanning, close-range photogrammetry, etc.). The tree-model engineering added new value to the CAD-Blockchain integration industry because a simple and scalable "Blockchain/Merkle hash tree" temporarily tracks tree-geometry-growth and texture change with simple parametric transactions. Hence, decentralized, autonomous, coordinated, and parallel design; same-data sharing; data validation; smart forest distributed surveillance; and contractual collaborative frameworks are effectively supported. Stratification based on forest types improved woody above-ground biomass estimation, especially when biomass was greater than 350 Mg/ha, using the proposed "Internet-of-tree-images" technique. Therefore, this research provides new insight into the woody above-ground biomass modeling and monitoring. Finally, performance evaluation testing validates the technique's robustness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indian mapping agency, Survey of India (SOI), is ambitiously implementing nation-wide network of Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) to improve the accuracy of derived three-dimensional relative positions of the Global Navigational Satellite System (GNSS) over the regions. However, it does not only improve the accuracy but also reduce the cost of reliable data acquisition. Recently, SOI has established a number of CORS networks and continues to cover the entire India for its suitability in the infrastructure projects and in the generation and updating of revenue maps. The present article attempts to measure the accuracy of a single baseline static survey carried out using the CORS network by studying fifteen stations established in different parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. To study the accuracy using the established CORS network, 7 days of continuous observed data from fifteen stations of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have been processed. The study has been done taking a base–rover combination with varying distance (D) from 30 to 160 km and the time duration (T) at 20 min, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 8 h, 12 h, and 24 h using observational CORS data (including both GPS and GLONASS). The present study shows that (i) dependence of accuracy on distance (D) up to 160 km is almost negligible when final ephemeris data of GPS satellite orbit (International GPS Service) have been used and (ii) the positional accuracy improved with an increase in observation duration. Finally, regression analysis has been done to establish the relationship between distance (D), duration (T), and accuracy for the given CORS network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Society's demographic development holds great importance for all social processes: economy, education, science, culture, and others. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the various factors influencing the formation of demographic trends and understand their significance. This paper considers a range of sources influencing the formation of young people's attitudes toward family values, namely: the immediate environment, mass media, media content, literature, social surveys, social advertising, and propaganda, as well as bloggers as a modern element of media communications that has a fairly large influence on the young audience. The paper analyzes Russia's policy of the demographic problem, which is associated with the currently being implemented Concept of the State Family policy in the Russian Federation until 2025 (The Concept) aimed at strengthening and protecting the family as the fundamental basis of the Russian society. The paper presents the results of mass surveys among the Rostov region youth: (1) on the key points of the Concept the sample included 450 young people aged 20-29 and (2) on the youth's preferences for various types of mass media with a sample of 634 respondents aged 16-25. It was revealed that the core foundations of the family culture are sufficiently established in the Russian Federation with the dominance of the marriage relations as free, voluntary, and equal association of men and women, which is consistent with the state policy of support and development of family values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

InSARTrac is an innovative method for 3D displacement monitoring that combines terrestrial interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) and computer vision-based feature tracking. The 3D measurements obtained are considered far superior to 1D or 2D data and facilitate evaluations concerning the mechanisms controlling kinematics. This study presents the results of InSARTrac measurements at the Mölltal Glacier in Carinthia, Austria. The duration of glacier monitoring was four weeks and involved two instrument setup positions to obtain comparative measurements of supraglacial rock debris from different angles without utilizing retroreflectors. The mean displacement rate of the resultant vector is 22 mm/day and includes ~11 mm/day in the downgradient ice surface direction and 6 to 18 mm/day vertically downward. Additionally, the entire glacier surface was measured three times using a LIDAR-equipped UAV, revealing mean vertical displacements of 16 mm/day. The measurements indicate an InSARTrac accuracy of 4.2 ppm, which is 27% lower than in the initial controlled tests utilizing retroreflectors. The field test demonstrates the capability of InSARTrac to provide meaningful 3D displacement measurements of supraglacial rock debris. The material monitored has texture and reflectivity similar to certain classes of landslides, rock glaciers, and other alpine processes, indicating that InSARTrac has promising applications for monitoring a variety of geologic phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to promote an efficient and reliable collection of deformation data for earthen slopes by comparing the Total Station (TS), Distributed Strain Sensing (DSS), and Uncrewed Aerial System (UAS)-based deformation measurement methods. The TS-based method was a two-person task with a longstanding "tried and true" reputation, and it provided acceptable results. However, it included a major portion of manual work in the field, potentially consuming extended time to obtain high-resolution data. The DSS-based method was a fiber optic cable-based one-person work, and it showed substantially faster and easier measurement. This method possessed the capability of collecting unattended measurements. The method also required anchor posts to measure deformation in segmented sections; some anchor posts became loose from shrinkage cracks and resulted in invalid measurements, particularly for soils of high plasticity. The UAS-based method was an aerial photogrammetric method. It provided an extremely high-resolution deformation profile but required a manual survey for an elevation check at reference points, although the surveying took a short amount of time by utilizing a Global Navigational Satellite Survey (GNSS) technique. This method required one operator and an assistant. From a comparison of the characteristics of the three different methods, it was found that each technique has its pros and cons, and the combination of different methods may greatly enhance the accuracy and convenience of the measurement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In April 2001 a rock fall at the Lärchberg-Galgenwald with boulders of several cubic meters in size did occur, which reached until the 50 to 70 m wide apron of the Federal Highway B96. This event triggered the installation of a fivemeter-high protective dam and the start of a geodetic monitoring program based on rope extensometer measurements and a geodetic survey. This study area is used to test further methods of image processing-based monitoring and to show the advantages and disadvantages with the focus on the main area of the landslide. The two technologies used are structure-from-motion (SfM) and terrestrial laser scanning technology. Both systems work through contactless data acquisition by active and passive recording processes. A data set in the form of a point cloud and a digital surface model with a grid size of 10 cm, which are checked for accuracy on the basis of measured control points, was created across all methods. As a further approach, the fusion of the point clouds from the flight using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and the laser scan point clouds was carried out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-quality urban green space (UGS) is an integral part of a livable city. The scientific evaluation of UGS has great value for improving the quality and efficiency of green spaces. In this study, we integrated the water and walking networks into the existing green index model and proposed a new green index: the building blue–green index (BBGI). Using this method, we analyzed the quality of green spaces within 300 m of 2138 buildings located in 13 communities in the Mochou Lake subdistrict in Nanjing, China. The results revealed that the green-space quality of high-rise, low-density buildings was greater than that of low-rise, high-density buildings. In addition, buildings close to water had higher green-space quality, while impervious surfaces reduced green-space quality. Furthermore, the connectivity and orientation of the road network indicated that even if a community was close to large parks and water bodies, there would still be lower green-space quality. This study's findings highlight the usefulness of evaluation methods for green-space quality that combine blue and green spaces. We also propose feasible measures for improving neighborhood green-space planning and land management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Debris cover on glaciers is an important component of glacial systems as it influences climate–glacier dynamics and thus the lifespan of glaciers. Increasing air temperatures, permafrost thaw and rock faces freshly exposed by glacier downwasting in accumulation zones result in increased rockfall activity and debris input. In the ablation zone, negative mass balances result in an enhanced melt‐out of englacial debris. Glacier debris cover thus represents a clear signal of climate warming in mountain areas. To assess the temporal development of debris on glaciers of the Eastern Alps, Austria, we mapped debris cover on 255 glaciers using Landsat data at three time steps. We applied a ratio‐based threshold classification technique and analysed glacier catchment characteristics to understand debris sources better. Across the Austrian Alps, debris cover increased by more than 10% between 1996 and 2015 while glaciers retreated in response to climate warming. Debris cover distribution shows significant regional variability, with some mountain ranges being characterised by mean debris cover on glaciers of up to 75%. We also observed a general rise of the mean elevation of debris cover on glaciers in Austria. The debris cover distribution and dynamics are highly variable due to topographic, lithological and structural settings that determine the amount of debris delivered to and stored in the glacier system. Despite strong variation in debris cover, all glaciers investigated melted at increasing rates. We conclude that the retarding effects of debris cover on the mass balance and melt rate of Austrian glaciers is strongly subdued compared with other mountain areas. The study indicates that, if this trend continues, many glaciers in Austria may become fully debris covered. However, since debris cover seems to have little impact on melt rates, this would not lead to prolonged existence of debris‐covered ice compared with clean ice glaciers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reexamines Athenian funerary reliefs depicting women in the dress of the Egyptian goddess Isis. Previous work has focused on their cultic and art-historical implications but has not considered their meaning in a colonial context. During the Roman Empire, provincial communities often depicted women in local, ethnic, or otherwise differentiated costumes, while men appeared in Graeco-Roman dress. In Athens several women wore Isis's dress, while their male companions wore Greek dress. This article argues that this gendered pattern of dress negotiated competing yet complementary identity claims within a Roman colonial context. This analysis suggests that cult membership allowed some Greeks to employ empire-wide patterns of self-representation in their portraiture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid growth of proglacial lakes in the current warming climate can pose significant outburst flood hazards, increase rates of ice mass loss, and alter the dynamic state of glaciers. We studied the nature and rate of proglacial lake evolution at Pasterze Glacier (Austria) in the period 1998–2019 using different remote-sensing (photogrammetry, laser scanning) and fieldwork-based (global navigation satellite system – GNSS, time-lapse photography, geoelectrical resistivity tomography – ERT, and bathymetry) data. Glacier thinning below the spillway level and glacier recession caused flooding of the glacier, initially forming a glacier-lateral to supraglacial lake with subaerial and subaquatic debris-covered dead-ice bodies. The observed lake size increase in 1998–2019 followed an exponential curve (1998 – 1900 m2 , 2019 – 304 000 m2). ERT data from 2015 to 2019 revealed widespread existence of massive dead-ice bodies exceeding 25 m in thickness near the lake shore. Several large-scale and rapidly occurring buoyant calving events were detected in the 48 m deep basin by time-lapse photography, indicating that buoyant calving is a crucial process for the fast lake expansion. Estimations of the ice volume losses by buoyant calving and by subaerial ablation at a 0.35 km2 large lake-proximal section of the glacier reveal comparable values for both processes (ca. 1×106 m3) for the period August 2018 to August 2019. We identified a sequence of processes: glacier recession into a basin and glacier thinning below the spillway level; glacio-fluvial sedimentation in the glacial–proglacial transition zone covering dead ice; initial formation and accelerating enlargement of a glacier-lateral to supraglacial lake by ablation of glacier ice and debris-covered dead ice forming thermokarst features; increase in hydrostatic disequilibrium leading to destabilization of ice at the lake bottom or at the near-shore causing fracturing, tilting, disintegration, or emergence of new icebergs due to buoyant calving; and gradual melting of icebergs along with iceberg capsizing events. We conclude that buoyant calving, previously not reported from the European Alps, might play an important role at alpine glaciers in the future as many glaciers are expected to recede into valley or cirque overdeepenings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Permafrost distribution in rock walls surrounding receding glaciers is an important factor in rock stability and rock wall retreat. We investigated bedrock permafrost distribution in the Dachstein Massif, Austria, reaching up to 2995 m a.s.l. The occurrence, thickness and thermal regime of permafrost at this partly glaciated mountain massif are scarcely known. We applied a multi-method approach with continuous ground surface and near-surface temperature monitoring (GST), measurement of the bottom temperature of the winter snow cover (BTS), electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), airborne photogrammetry, topographic maps, visual observations, and field mapping. Our research focused on several steep rock walls consisting of massive limestone above receding glaciers exposed to different slope aspects at elevations between ca. 2600 and 2700 m a.s.l. We aimed to quantify the distribution and conditions of bedrock permafrost particularly at the transition zone between the present glacier surface and the adjacent rock walls. According to our ground temperature data, permafrost is mainly found at north-facing rock walls. At south-east-facing rock walls, permafrost is probable only in very favourable cold conditions at radiation-sheltered higher elevations (>2700 m a.s.l.). ERT measurements reveal high resistivities (>30 000 Ω m) at ≥1.5 m depth at north-exposed slopes (highest values >100 k Ω m). Deducted from laboratory studies and additional small-scale ERT measurements, these values indicate permafrost existence. Permafrost bodies were found at several rock walls independent of investigated slope orientation; however, particularly large permafrost bodies were found at north-exposed sites. Furthermore, at vertical survey lines, a pronounced imprint of the former Little Ice Age (LIA) ice margin was detected. Resistivities above and below the LIA line are markedly different. At the LIA glacier surface, the highest resistivities and lowest active-layer thicknesses were observed. The active-layer thickness increases downslope from this zone. Permafrost below the LIA line could be due to permafrost aggradation or degradation; however, the spatial patterns of frozen rock point to permafrost aggradation following glacier surface lowering or retreat. This finding is significant for permafrost and cirque erosion studies in terms of frost-influence weathering in similar high-mountain settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Debris-covered glaciers generally exhibit large, gently sloping, slow-flowing tongues. At present, many of these glaciers show high thinning rates despite thick debris cover. Due to the lack of observations, most existing studies have neglected the dynamic interactions between debris cover and glacier evolution over longer time periods. The main aim of this study is to reveal such interactions by reconstructing changes of debris cover, glacier geometry, flow velocities, and surface features of Zmuttgletscher (Switzerland), based on historic maps, satellite images, aerial photographs, and field observations. We show that debris cover extent has increased from ∼13 % to ∼32 % of the total glacier surface since 1859 and that in 2017 the debris is sufficiently thick to reduce ablation compared to bare ice over much of the ablation area. Despite the debris cover, the glacier-wide mass balance of Zmuttgletscher is comparable to that of debris-free glaciers located in similar settings, whereas changes in length and area have been small and delayed by comparison. Increased ice mass input in the 1970s and 1980s resulted in a temporary velocity increase, which led to a local decrease in debris cover extent, a lowering of the upper boundary of the ice-cliff zone, and a strong reduction in ice-cliff area, indicating a dynamic link between flow velocities, debris cover, and surface morphology. Since 2005, the lowermost 1.5 km of the glacier has been quasi-stagnant, despite a slight increase in the surface slope of the glacier tongue. We conclude that the long-term glacier-wide mass balance is mainly governed by climate. The debris cover governs the spatial pattern of elevation change without changing its glacier-wide magnitude, which we explain by the extended ablation area and the enhanced thinning in regions with thin debris further up-glacier and in areas with abundant meltwater channels and ice cliffs. At the same time rising temperatures lead to increasing debris cover and decreasing ice flux, thereby attenuating length and area losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many glaciers in alpine regions are currently rapidly receding and thinning at historically unobserved rates causing changes in the velocity field and in normal and shear stresses affecting the surface expression of structures within the ice. We studied the distribution of brittle and ductile structures at the surface of Pasterze Glacier during a 14‐year period by analysing orthophotos and digital elevation models of five stages (1998, 2003, 2006, 2009 and 2012). A structural glaciological mapping key was applied. Normal faults, strike‐slip faults, en échelon structures (systematic stepping of fractures), thrust faults, and band ogives were distinguished. Results indicate substantial deceleration and glacier thinning in 1998–2012. Glacier thinning was not homogenous over time related to the uneven distribution of supraglacial debris causing differential ablation or the selective ablation effects of subglacial water channels. Peculiar supraglacial features observed are circular collapse structures with concentric crevasses which form when the ice between the surface and the roof of water channels decreases. The total length of brittle structures increased from 38.4 km to 56.9 km whereas the extent of the glacier tongue decreased by 25%. The fracture density doubled from 0.009 to 0.018 m/m2. Areas of the glacier tongue which were up to 100 m away from the nearest brittle structure increased by 16%. The visual appearance of thrust faults shifted upglacier due to decreasing glacier velocity causing horizontal shortening or due to exhumation of faults that did not previously extend to the surface. A large number of brittle structures are progressively independent from glacier motion. Our study suggests that glacier tongues which are in a state of rapid decay and thinning are prone to fracturing due to normal fault formation and glacier disintegration. Water further increases ablation rates substantially if rather large amounts drain through supra‐, en‐ or subglacial water channels. © 2018 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Key findings Quantification of supraglacial brittle and ductile structures over a 14 year period (1998‐2012) using remote sensing dataDoubling of the fracture density at the glacier tongue in 14 years from 0.009 to 0.018 m/m2The discontinuous supraglacial debris cover and subglacial ablation related to water streams influenced severely glacier surface changes and fracture evolutionExtension of a time series of brittle structure mapping to 125 years (1887‐2012) with 13 stages at this glacier [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mt. Ojos del Salado (6893 m a.s.l.) lies within the Andean Arid Diagonal, on the Chilean–Argentinean border. Due to the extremely arid climate, surface ice is not widespread on Mt. Ojos del Salado and at similar high‐altitude massifs in the region, although ice‐bearing permafrost might be present. However, the thermal regime of the ground is relatively unknown in the region, especially outside of rock glaciers at high elevations north of 30°S. To study ground thermal regimes, in‐situ shallow ground temperature and snow coverage from satellite imagery have been surveyed for four years (2012–2016) at six sites between the elevations of 4200–6893 m a.s.l. on Mt. Ojos del Salado (27°07′S, 68°32′W). According to the ground temperature and snow coverage data at the six monitoring sites, the presence of permafrost is unlikely below 4550 m a.s.l. but likely above 5250 m a.s.l. on Mt. Ojos del Salado. In addition, the active layer becomes extremely thin around 6750 m a.s.l. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of research involving the geodiversity concept has been growing in the last two decades. The quantification of spatial patterns of geodiversity seems to be one of the most promising lines of research related with natural diversity, since it explores the relations between abiotic elements. This last aspect can be crucial, not only for territorial management, but also for conservation initiatives associated with biodiversity. The main aim of this study was to develop a new GIS procedure, based on centroid analysis, to calculate a geodiversity index, using kernel density, and to test its application in two municipalities with different area surfaces and geological setting. The proposed method is an upgrade of those previously published based on a spatial grid system at a landscape scale. The results of this method show that it is possible to obtain a spatial geodiversity standard that reflects the spatial variation of natural abiotic elements on both territories and that lithology and geomorphology are the key drivers that control the geodiversity index. In addition, the testing procedures have demonstrated that this method can be applied to areas with any geological and geomorphological setting and at different scales and also to be a useful tool for land use planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current research questions in the field of geomorphology focus on the impact of climate change on several processes subsequently causing natural hazards. Geodetic deformation measurements are a suitable tool to document such geomorphic mechanisms, e.g. by capturing a region of interest with terrestrial laser scanners which results in a so-called 3-D point cloud. The main problem in deformation monitoring is the transformation of 3-D point clouds captured at different points in time (epochs) into a stable reference coordinate system. In this contribution, a surface-based registration methodology is applied, termed the iterative closest proximity algorithm (ICProx), that solely uses point cloud data as input, similar to the iterative closest point algorithm (ICP). The aim of this study is to automatically classify deformations that occurred at a rock glacier and an ice glacier, as well as in a rockfall area. For every case study, two epochs were processed, while the datasets notably differ in terms of geometric characteristics, distribution and magnitude of deformation. In summary, the ICProx algorithm's classification accuracy is 70% on average in comparison to reference data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the important role of supraglacial debris in ablation, knowledge of debris thickness on Himalayan glaciers is sparse. A recently developed method based on reanalysis data and thermal band satellite imagery has proved to be potentially suitable for debris thickness estimation without the need for detailed field data. In this study, we further develop the method and discuss possibilities and limitations arising from its application to a glacier in the Himalaya with scarce in situ data. Surface temperature patterns are consistent for 13 scenes of Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) and Landsat 7 imagery and correlate well with incoming shortwave radiation and air temperature. We use an energy-balance approach to subtract these radiation or air temperature effects, in order to estimate debris thickness patterns as a function of surface temperature. Both incoming shortwave and longwave radiation are estimated with reasonable accuracy when applying parameterizations and reanalysis data. However, the model likely underestimates debris thickness, probably due to incorrect representation of vertical debris temperature profiles, the rate of heat storage and turbulent sensible heat flux. Moreover, the uncertainty of the result was found to increase significantly with thicker debris, a promising result since ablation is enhanced by thin debris of 1-2 cm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proglacial groundwater-fed features, such as seeps, substantially impact proglacial geomorphology, hydrology, and ecology. However, there is a paucity of research on the impacts of climate change and glacier retreat on the extent of these important features. This paper aims to investigate the impact of glacier retreat on proglacial groundwater levels and on the extent of groundwater-fed seeps. Research has taken place in western Skeiðarársandur, the large proglacial outwash plain of Skeiðarárjökull, a retreating temperate glacier in southeast Iceland. Changes in the extent of proglacial groundwater seeps were mapped using historical aerial photographs from 1986, 1997, and 2012. Proglacial groundwater levels were monitored in shallow boreholes between 2000 and 2012. The western margin of Skeiðarárjökull has retreated approximately 1 km beyond its position in 1986. However, this retreat was punctuated by short periods of readvance. The geomorphology and groundwater systems at the site were substantially impacted by the November 1996 jökulhlaup, whose deposits altered approximately 18% of the area of groundwater seeps. The surface areas of groundwater seeps and lakes in the study area have declined by ~97% between 1986 and 2012. Most of the decline took place after 1997, when the mean annual rate of retreat increased three-fold. Groundwater levels also declined substantially between 2000 and 2012, although this trend varies spatially. The paper provides a conceptual model of the controls on proglacial shallow groundwater systems. Direct impacts of glacier retreat are suggested as the main cause for the declines in proglacial groundwater levels and in the extent of groundwater seeps. These declines are expected to adversely impact sandur ecology. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the long-term effects of long-term piggery effluent application on semi-natural grassland ecotop-phytotop changes (above- and below-ground phytomass production, and carbon and nitrogen allocation in grassland communities) in relation to changes (or variability) in topsoil properties. Analysis of phytomass distribution in piggery effluent irrigated grassland communities showed that dry biomass yield varied from 1.7−5.3 t ha-1. Variability in soil and plant cover created a unique and highly unpredictable site specific system, where long-term anthropogenic influences established successor communities with specific characteristics of above- and below-ground biomass distribution. These characteristics depend more on grassland communities than on soil chemical properties. Families of grasses (Poaceae) dominated the surveyed communities and accumulated most carbon and least nitrogen, while legumes accumulated most nitrogen and lignin and least carbon. Carbon concentrations in above-ground biomass had minor variations, while accumulation of nitrogen was strongly influenced by species diversity (r = 0.94, n = 10, p <0.001) and production of above-ground biomass [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial evolution of supraglacial debris cover on mountain glaciers is a largely unmonitored and poorly understood phenomenon that directly affects glacier melt. Supraglacial debris cover for 93 glaciers in the Karakoram, northern Pakistan, was mapped from Landsat imagery acquired in 1977, 1998, 2009 and 2014. Surge-type glaciers occupy 41% of the study area and were considered separately. The time series of debris-covered surface area change shows a mean value of zero or nearzero change for both surging and non-surging glaciers. An increase in debris-covered area is often associated with negative regional mass balances. We extend this logic to suggest that the stable regional mass balances in the Karakoram explain the zero or near-zero change in debris-covered area. This coupling of trends combined with our 37 year time series of data suggests the Karakoram anomaly extends further back in time than previously known. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-alpine geomorphosites are poorly understood and developed, mostly because of the heavy constraints of high mountain areas. Meanwhile, they are geoheritage areas that are often extremely vulnerable to global warming: glaciers and permafrost areas are currently affected by major changes due to increasing air temperature. To deal with the high spatial variability of landforms and processes, research on alpine geomorphosites often needs the use of advanced methods of high-resolution topography, among which terrestrial laser scanning plays an increasingly crucial role. Carried out on some tenth of high-elevation sites across the Alps since the beginning of the 2000s, this method is particularly interesting for the recognition and development of high-alpine geomorphosites. Indeed, it can be implemented for identifying and characterizing the geomorphic objects (survey, monitoring and mapping), helping planning and protection policies and serving geotouristic development (communication about the processes involved, basis for documents). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Glacier recession and landform development in a debris-charged glacial landsystem characterized by an overdeepening is quantified using digital photogrammetry, digital elevation model (DEM) construction and mapping of the Icelandic glacier Kvíárjökull for the period 1945-2003. Melting of ice-cores is recorded by surface lowering rates of 0·8 m yr-1 (1945-1964), 0·3 m yr-1 (1964-1980), 0·015 m yr-1 (1980-1998) and 0·044 m yr-1 (1998-2003). The distribution/preservation of pushed and stacked ice-cored moraine complexes are determined by the location of the long-term glacial drainage network in combination with retreat from the overdeepening, into which glacifluvial sediment is being directed and where debris-rich ice masses are being reworked and replaced by esker networks produced in englacial meltwater pathways that bypassed the overdeepening and connected to outwash fans prograding over the snout. Recent accelerated retreat of Kvíárjökull, potentially due to increased mass balance sensitivity, has made the snout highly unstable, especially now that the overdeepening is being uncovered and the snout flooded by an expanding pro-glacial, and partially supraglacial, lake. This case study indicates that thick sequences of debris-charged basal ice/controlled moraine have a very low preservation potential but ice-cored moraine complexes can develop into hummocky moraine belts in de-glaciated terrains because they are related to the process of incremental stagnation, which at Kvíárjökull has involved periodic switches from transport-dominant to ablation-dominant conditions. Glacier recession is therefore recorded temporally and spatially by two suites of landforms relating to two phases of landform production which are likely typical for glaciers occupying overdeepenings: an early phase of active, temperate recession recorded by push moraines and lateral moraines and unconfined pro-glacial meltwater drainage; and a later phase of incremental stagnation and pitted outwash head development initiated by the increasing topographic constraints of the latero-frontal moraine arc and the increasing importance of the overdeepening as a depo-centre. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Imja Glacier Lake (Imja Tsho) (1.03 km2 in 2007) is repeatedly cited as one of the most dangerous glacial lakes in the Himalaya with a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) claimed to be imminent. Knowledge of lake development and its dynamics, however, is limited and forecasts of a possible outburst are not scientifically based. Nevertheless, prospects for such a catastrophe are repeatedly exaggerated, attracting alarmist mass media coverage. The paper provides an assessment of the lake expansion rates from 1956 to 2007. Stage 1 (1956-1975), slowest: coalescence of several small supra-glacial ponds; Stage 2 (1975-1978), a short period of most rapid expansion; Stage 3 (1978-1997), slow: gradual expansion of single lake; and Stage 4 (1997-2007), renewed acceleration: mainly eastward expansion into the glacier surface. The lake's water level has fallen from 5041 m to 5004 m (1964-2006). The results show that there is no immediate danger of catastrophic outburst although the dynamics of up-glacier and down-valley lake expansion, fluctuation of lake water level, and dead-ice morphology changes should be continuously and comprehensively monitored. Alarmist prognostications based solely upon rapid areal expansion are counterproductive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Failures of glacial lake dams can cause outburst floods and represents a serious hazard. The potential danger of outburst floods depends on various factors like the lake's area and volume, glacier change, morphometry of the glacier and its surrounding moraines and valley, and glacier velocity. Remote sensing offers an efficient tool for displacement calculations and risk assessment of the identification of potentially dangerous glacial lakes (PDGLs) and is especially helpful for remote mountainous areas. Not all important parameters can, however, be obtained using spaceborne imagery. Additional interpretation by an expert is required. ASTER data has a suitable accuracy to calculate surface velocity. Ikonos data offers more detail but requires more effort for rectification. All investigated debris-covered glacier tongues show areas with no or very slow movement rates. From 1962 to 2003 the number and area of glacial lakes increased, dominated by the occurrence and almost linear areal expansion of the moraine-dammed lakes, like the Imja Lake. Although the Imja Lake will probably still grow in the near future, the risk of an outburst flood (GLOF) is considered not higher than for other glacial lakes in the area. Potentially dangerous lakes and areas of lake development are identified. There is a high probability of further lake development at Khumbu Glacier, but a low one at Lhotse Glacier. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The alluvial channel of the Langgriesgraben (Austria) is a highly active geomorphic riverine subcatchment of the Johnsbach River with intermittent discharge and braided river structures. The high sediment yield entails both issues and opportunities. For decades, the riverbed was exploited as a gravel pit. Today, as part of the Gesäuse National Park and after renaturation, the sediment yield endangers a locally important bridge located at the outlet of the subcatchment. High-resolution geospatial investigations are vital for the quantification of sediment redistribution, which is relevant in terms of river management. Based on unmanned aerial system (UAS) surveys in 2015 (July, September, and October) and 2019 (August and October), high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) were generated, which enable us to quantify intra- and multiannual sediment changes. As surface runoff at the subcatchment occurs on only a few days per year with flash floods and debris flows that are not predictable and thus hardly observable, the subsurface water conditions were assessed based on electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) measurements, which were conducted in 2019 (November) and 2020 (May, June). Results of the UAS-based surveys showed that, considering the data quality, intra-annual sediment changes affected only small subareas, whereas multiannual changes occurred in the entire study area and amount to net sediment deposition of ≈0.3–0.4 m3m−2, depending on the channel section. In addition, the elevation differences for both intra-annual surveys revealed linear patterns that can be interpreted as braided river channels. As in both survey periods the same areas were affected by changes, it can be concluded that the channel mainly affected by reshaping persisted within the 4-year observation period. The subsurface investigations showed that although both near-surface and groundwater conditions changed, near-surface sediments are mostly dry with a thickness of several meters during the observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry is one of the most effective methods for capturing a terrain in smaller areas. Capturing a steep terrain is more complex than capturing a flat terrain. To fly a mission in steep rugged terrain, a ground control station with a terrain following mode is required, and a quality digital elevation model (DEM) of the terrain is needed. The methods and results of capturing such terrain were analyzed as part of the Belca rockfall surveys. In addition to the national digital terrain model (NDTM), two customized DEMs were developed to optimize the photogrammetric survey of the steep terrain with oblique images. Flight heights and slant distances between camera projection centers and terrain are analyzed in the article. Some issues were identified and discussed, namely the vertical images in steep slopes and the steady decrease of UAV heights above ground level (AGL) with the increase of height above take-off (ATO) at 6%-8% rate. To compensate for the latter issue, the custom DEMs and NDTM were tilted. Based on our experience, the proposed optimal method for capturing the steep terrain is a combination of vertical and oblique UAV images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earth observation offers a variety of techniques for monitoring and characterizing geomorphic processes in high mountain environments. Terrestrial laserscanning and unmanned aerial vehicles provide very high resolution data with high accuracy. Automatic cameras have become a valuable source of information—mostly in a qualitative manner—in recent years. The availability of satellite data with very high revisiting time has gained momentum through the European Space Agency's Sentinel missions, offering new application potential for Earth observation. This paper reviews the status of recent techniques such as terrestrial laserscanning, remote sensed imagery, and synthetic aperture radar in monitoring high mountain environments with a particular focus on the impact of new platforms such as Sentinel-1 and -2 as well as unmanned aerial vehicles. The study area comprises the high mountain glacial environment at the Pasterze Glacier, Austria. The area is characterized by a highly dynamic geomorphological evolution and by being subject to intensive scientific research as well as long-term monitoring. We primarily evaluate landform classification and process characterization for: (i) the proglacial lake; (ii) icebergs; (iii) the glacier river; (iv) valley-bottom processes; (v) slope processes; and (vi) rock wall processes. We focus on assessing the potential of every single method both in spatial and temporal resolution in characterizing different geomorphic processes. Examples of the individual techniques are evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively in the context of: (i) morphometric analysis; (ii) applicability in high alpine regions; and (iii) comparability of the methods among themselves. The final frame of this article includes considerations on scale dependent process detectability and characterization potentials of these Earth observation methods, along with strengths and limitations in applying these methods in high alpine regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]