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The Simons Observatory is a ground-based telescope array located at an elevation of 5200 meters, in the Atacama Desert in Chile, designed to measure the temperature and polarization of the cosmic microwave background. It comprises four telescopes: three 0.42-meter small aperture telescopes (SATs), focused on searching for primordial gravitational waves, and one 6-meter large aperture telescope, focused on studying small-scale perturbations. Each of the SATs will field over 12,000 TES bolometers, with two SATs sensitive to both 90 and 150GHz frequency bands (SAT-MF1, and SAT-MF2), while the third SAT is sensitive to 220 and 280GHz frequency bands. Prior to its deployment in 2023, the optical properties of SAT-MF1 were characterized in the laboratory. We report on measurements of near-field beam maps acquired using a thermal source along with measurements using a holographic method that enables characterization of the amplitude and phase of the beam response, yielding an estimate of the far-field radiation pattern received by SAT-MF1. We find that the near-field half-width-half-maximum (HWHM) requirements are met across the focal plane array for the 90GHz frequency band, and through most of the focal plane array for the 150GHz frequency band. The mean of the bandpass averaged HWHM of the edge-detector focal plane modules match the simulated HWHM to 10.4%, with the discrepancy caused by fringing in the simulation. The measured beam profiles match simulations to within 2dB from the beam center to at least the -10dB level. Holography estimates of the far-field 90GHz beams match the full-width-half-maximum from simulation within 1%, and the beam profiles deviate by less than 2dB inside the central lobe. The success of the holography and thermal beam map experiments confirmed the optical performance was sufficient to meet the science requirements. On-site observations are currently underway., Comment: 16 pages, 10 figures, Event: SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation, 2024, Yokohama, Japan

The detailed mechanism of bonding in the cold spray process has remained elusive for both experimental and theoretical parties. Adiabatic shear instability and hydrodynamic plasticity models have been so far the most popular explanations. Here, using molecular dynamics simulation, we investigate their validity at the nanoscale. The present study has potential application for the fabrication of ultra-thin layers for the electronics industry. For this aim, we considered Ti nanoparticles of different diameters and Si substrates of different orientations. It is shown that very high spray velocities are required for a jet to be observed at the nanoscale. We propose a method for thermostating the substrate that enables utilizing high spray velocities. For the first time, we demonstrate an oscillatory behavior in both the normal and radial stress components within the substrate that can propagate into the particle. We have shown that neither the adiabatic shear instability model nor the hydrodynamic plasticity model can be ignored at the nanoscale. Besides, the formation of a low-resistance titanium silicide proper for electronic application is illustrated., Comment: 14 pages, 15 figures

We describe the cryogenic system being developed for Taurus: a super-pressure balloon-borne microwave polarimeter scheduled to fly in 2027. The Taurus cryogenic system consists of a 660L liquid helium cryostat which achieves a base temperature of <100mK with the help of a capillary-fed superfluid tank and a closed cycle dilution refrigerator. The main tank is supported with fiberglass flexures and is encased in two layers of vapor-cooled shields which allow Taurus to make full use of the extended flight time offered by the super-pressure balloon platform. The Taurus cryostat is projected to hold for over 50 days while weighing under 1000lbs. We present the design, testing, and thermal analysis of the Taurus cryogenic systems.

We present a comparative study of copper film growth with a constant energy neutral beam, thermal evaporation, dc magnetron sputtering, high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiP-IMS), and bipolar HiPIMS, through molecular dynamics simulations. Experimentally determined energy distribution functions were utilized to model the deposition processes. Our results indicate significant differences in the film quality, growth rate, and substrate erosion between the various physical vapor deposition techniques. Bipolar HiPIMS shows the potential for improved film structure under certain conditions, albeit with increased substrate erosion. Bipolar +180 V HiPIMS with 10% Cu + ions exhibited the best film properties in terms of crystallinity and atomic stress among the PVD processes investigated.

Due to high dynamic range and ease of use, continuous wave terahertz spectroscopy is an increasingly popular method for optical characterization of components used in cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiments. In this work, we describe an optical testbed that enables simultaneous measurements of transmission and reflection properties of various radiation absorbing dielectric materials, essential components in the reduction of undesired optical loading. To demonstrate the performance of the testbed, we have measured the reflection response of five absorbers commonly used for such applications: TKRAM, carbon- and iron-loaded Stycast, HR10, AN72, and an in-house 3D printed absorber across a frequency range of 100 to 500 GHz, for both S- and P-polarization, with incident angles varying from 15 to 45 degrees. We present results on both the specular and scattered reflection response of these absorbers., Comment: to be published in the proceedings of SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation 2024

Many experimental efforts are striving to provide deep maps of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) to shed light on key questions in modern cosmology. The primary science goal for some of these experiments is to further constrain the energy scale of cosmic inflation. It has been shown that these experiments are particularly sensitive to optical systematics. Near-field vector beam mapping, or holography, is now employed in a variety of CMB-focused experimental efforts due to the technique's ability to provide full details of electromagnetic field propagation through complex systems. In this proceeding, we describe the development of a measurement bench for millimeter-wave phase-sensitive beam mapping with the goal of characterizing optical components for CMB experiments. We discuss the testing of a beam scanner based on a 6-axis robot arm, the related custom control software, the readout architecture, and the overall validation of the system through various testing procedures. Dynamic range of 70 dB is demonstrated for the presented setup. With the current mechanical setup, we derive an upper limits of 45 $\mu$m on the absolute positioning error and 10 $\mu$m on positional repeatability., Comment: 8 pages, 6 figures, to be published in the proceedings of SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation 2024

Current and future experiments observing the cosmic microwave background require a detailed understanding of optical performance at cryogenic temperatures. Pre-deployment analysis of optics can be performed in custom-engineered cryogenic test beds, such as Mod-Cam, a first light camera for the CCAT project. This work presents studies of the mechanical and thermal performance of CryoSim, a model of a generic cylindrical 4-K cryostat cooled with a commercial pulse tube cryocooler that can be used to characterise optical components and full reimaging optical systems. CryoSim is extensively parametrised, allowing the joint analysis and optimisation of mechanical and thermal performance via finite element methods. Results from this model are validated against measured cooldown data of the Mod-Cam cryostat. Due to the extensive parametrisation of the model, significant modifications of the cryostat geometry may be implemented to be representative of any system the scientific community may desire, and validation of thermal and mechanical performance can be carried out rapidly., Comment: To be published in the SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation (AS24) proceedings

Taurus is a balloon-borne cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiment optimized to map the E-mode polarization and Galactic foregrounds at the largest angular scales ($\ell$ $\lt$ 30) and improve measurements of the optical depth to reionization ($\tau$). This will pave the way for improved measurements of the sum of neutrino masses in combination with high-resolution CMB data while also testing the $\Lambda CDM$ model on large angular scales and providing high-frequency maps of polarized dust foregrounds to the CMB community. These measurements take advantage of the low-loading environment found in the stratosphere and are enabled by NASA's super-pressure balloon platform, which provides access to 70% of the sky with a launch from Wanaka, New Zealand. Here we describe a general overview of Taurus, with an emphasis on the instrument design. Taurus will employ more than 10,000 100 mK transition edge sensor bolometers distributed across two low-frequency (150, 220 GHz) and one high-frequency (280, 350 GHz) dichroic receivers. The liquid helium cryostat housing the detectors and optics is supported by a lightweight gondola. The payload is designed to meet the challenges in mass, power, and thermal control posed by the super-pressure platform. The instrument and scan strategy are optimized for rigorous control of instrumental systematics, enabling high-fidelity linear polarization measurements on the largest angular scales.

We simulate a variety of optical systematics for Taurus, a balloon-borne cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarisation experiment, to assess their impact on large-scale E-mode polarisation measurements and constraints of the optical depth to reionisation {\tau}. We model a one-month flight of Taurus from Wanaka, New Zealand aboard a super-pressure balloon (SPB). We simulate night-time scans of both the CMB and dust foregrounds in the 150GHz band, one of Taurus's four observing bands. We consider a variety of possible systematics that may affect Taurus's observations, including non-gaussian beams, pointing reconstruction error, and half-wave plate (HWP) non-idealities. For each of these, we evaluate the residual power in the difference between maps simulated with and without the systematic, and compare this to the expected signal level corresponding to Taurus's science goals. Our results indicate that most of the HWP-related systematics can be mitigated to be smaller than sample variance by calibrating with Planck's TT spectrum and using an achromatic HWP model, with a preference for five layers of sapphire to ensure good systematic control. However, additional beam characterization will be required to mitigate far-sidelobe pickup from dust on larger scales., Comment: 21 pages, 6 tables, 7 figures, this version as published in JCAP after minor revisions to v1

The Simons Observatory will map the temperature and polarization over half of the sky, at millimeter wavelengths in six spectral bands from the Atacama Desert in Chile. These data will provide new insights into the genesis, content, and history of our Universe; the astrophysics of galaxies and galaxy clusters; objects in our solar system; and time-varying astrophysical phenomena. This ambitious new instrument suite, initially comprising three 0.5 m small-aperture telescopes and one 6 m large aperture telescope, is designed using a common combination of new technologies and new implementations to realize an observatory significantly more capable than the previous generation. In this paper, we present the pre-deployment performance of the first mid-frequency "optics tube" which will be fielded on the large aperture telescope with sensitivity to the 90 and 150 GHz spectral bands. This optics tube contains lenses, filters, detectors, and readout components, all of which operate at cryogenic temperatures. It is one of seven that form the core of the large aperture telescope receiver in its initial deployment. We describe this optics tube, including details of comprehensive testing methods, new techniques for beam and passband characterization, and its measured performance. The performance metrics include beams, optical efficiency, passbands, and forecasts for the on-sky performance of the system. We forecast a sensitivity that exceeds the requirements of the large aperture telescope with greater than 30% margin in each spectral band, and predict that the instrument will realize diffraction-limited performance and the expected detector passbands.

The Simons Observatory (SO) is a cosmic microwave background (CMB) survey experiment that includes small-aperture telescopes (SATs) observing from an altitude of 5,200 m in the Atacama Desert in Chile. The SO SATs will cover six spectral bands between 27 and 280 GHz to search for primordial B-modes to a sensitivity of $\sigma(r)=0.002$, with quantified systematic errors well below this value. Each SAT is a self-contained cryogenic telescope with a 35$^\circ$ field of view, 42 cm diameter optical aperture, 40 K half-wave plate, 1 K refractive optics, and $<0.1$ K focal plane that holds $>12,000$ TES detectors. We describe the nominal design of the SATs and present details about the integration and testing for one operating at 93 and 145 GHz.

CMB-S4, the next-generation ground-based cosmic microwave background (CMB) observatory, will provide detailed maps of the CMB at millimeter wavelengths to dramatically advance our understanding of the origin and evolution of the universe. CMB-S4 will deploy large and small aperture telescopes with hundreds of thousands of detectors to observe the CMB at arcminute and degree resolutions at millimeter wavelengths. Inflationary science benefits from a deep delensing survey at arcminute resolutions capable of observing a large field of view at millimeter wavelengths. This kind of survey acts as a complement to a degree angular resolution survey. The delensing survey requires a nearly uniform distribution of cameras per frequency band across the focal plane. We present a large-throughput, large-aperture (5-meter diameter) freeform three-mirror anastigmatic telescope and an array of 85 cameras for CMB observations at arcminute resolutions, which meets the needs of the delensing survey of CMB-S4. A detailed prescription of this three-mirror telescope and cameras is provided, with a series of numerical calculations that indicate expected optical performance and mechanical tolerance.

We use time-domain simulations of Jupiter observations to test and develop a beam reconstruction pipeline for the Simons Observatory Small Aperture Telescopes. The method relies on a map maker that estimates and subtracts correlated atmospheric noise and a beam fitting code designed to compensate for the bias caused by the map maker. We test our reconstruction performance for four different frequency bands against various algorithmic parameters, atmospheric conditions and input beams. We additionally show the reconstruction quality as function of the number of available observations and investigate how different calibration strategies affect the beam uncertainty. For all of the cases considered, we find good agreement between the fitted results and the input beam model within a ~1.5% error for a multipole range l = 30 - 700 and an ~0.5% error for a multipole range l = 50 - 200. We conclude by using a harmonic-domain component separation algorithm to verify that the beam reconstruction errors and biases observed in our analysis do not significantly bias the Simons Observatory r-measurement., Comment: 23 pages, 21 figures, published in ApJ

We present optimization of [(15 $\unicode{x212B}$) Ni$_{80}$Fe$_{20}$/(5 $\unicode{xC5}$) M]$_{20}$ single crystal multilayers on (001) MgO, with M being Cu, Cu$_{50}$Pt$_{50}$ and Pt. These superlattices were characterized by high-resolution X-ray reflectivity (XRR) and diffraction (XRD) as well as polar mapping of important crystal planes. It is shown that cube on cube epitaxial relationship can be obtained when depositing at the substrate temperature of 100 $^\circ$C regardless of the lattice mismatch (5% and 14% for Cu and Pt, respectively). At lower substrate temperatures poly-crystalline multilayers were obtained while at higher substrate temperatures {111} planes appear at $\sim$10$^\circ$ off normal to the film plane. It is also shown that as the epitaxial strain increases, the easy magnetization axis rotates towards the direction that previously was assumed to be harder, i.e. from [110] to [100], and eventually further increase in the strain makes the magnetic hysteresis loops isotropic in the film plane. Higher epitaxial strain is also accompanied with increased coercivity values. Thus, the effect of epitaxial strain on the magnetocrystalline anisotropy is much larger than what was observed previously in similar, but polycrystalline samples with uniaxial anisotropy (Kateb et al. 2021)., Comment: 7 pages, 8 figures

Polarization of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) can probe new parity-violating physics such as cosmic birefringence (CB), which requires exquisite control over instrumental systematics. The non-idealities of the half-wave plate (HWP) represent a source of systematics when used as a polarization modulator. We study their impact on the CMB angular power spectra, which is partially degenerate with CB and miscalibration of the polarization angle. We use full-sky beam convolution simulations including HWP to generate mock noiseless time-ordered data, process them through a bin averaging map-maker, and calculate the power spectra including $TB$ and $EB$ correlations. We also derive analytical formulae which accurately model the observed spectra. For our choice of HWP parameters, the HWP-induced angle amounts to a few degrees, which could be misinterpreted as CB. Accurate knowledge of the HWP is required to mitigate this. Our simulation and analytical formulae will be useful for deriving requirements for the accuracy of HWP calibration., Comment: 12 pages + appendices and bibliography, 5 figures, 1 table; accepted for publication in JCAP

We summarise the recent progress of the Axion Longitudinal Plasma HAloscope (ALPHA) Consortium, a new experimental collaboration to build a plasma haloscope to search for axions and dark photons. The plasma haloscope is a novel method for the detection of the resonant conversion of light dark matter to photons. ALPHA will be sensitive to QCD axions over almost a decade of parameter space, potentially discovering dark matter and resolving the Strong CP problem. Unlike traditional cavity haloscopes, which are generally limited in volume by the Compton wavelength of the dark matter, plasma haloscopes use a wire metamaterial to create a tuneable artificial plasma frequency, decoupling the wavelength of light from the Compton wavelength and allowing for much stronger signals. We develop the theoretical foundations of plasma haloscopes and discuss recent experimental progress. Finally, we outline a baseline design for ALPHA and show that a full-scale experiment could discover QCD axions over almost a decade of parameter space., Comment: Endorsers: Jens Dilling, Michael Febbraro, Stefan Knirck, and Claire Marvinney. 26 pages, 17 figures, version accepted in Physical Review D, typo corrected

CMB-S4 -- the next-generation ground-based cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiment - will significantly advance the sensitivity of CMB measurements and improve our understanding of the origin and evolution of the universe. CMB-S4 will deploy large-aperture telescopes fielding hundreds of thousands of detectors at millimeter wavelengths. We present the baseline optical design concept of the large-aperture CMB-S4 telescopes, which consists of two optical configurations: (i) a new off-axis, three-mirror, free-form anastigmatic design and (ii) the existing coma-corrected crossed-Dragone design. We also present an overview of the optical configuration of the array of silicon optics cameras that will populate the focal plane with 85 diffraction-limited optics tubes covering up to 9 degrees of field of view, up to $1.1 \, \rm mm$ in wavelength. We describe the computational optimization methods that were put in place to implement the families of designs described here and give a brief update on the current status of the design effort.

We present near-field radio holography measurements of the Simons Observatory Large Aperture Telescope Receiver optics. These measurements demonstrate that radio holography of complex millimeter-wave optical systems comprising cryogenic lenses, filters, and feed horns can provide detailed characterization of wave propagation before deployment. We used the measured amplitude and phase, at 4K, of the receiver near-field beam pattern to predict two key performance parameters: 1) the amount of scattered light that will spill past the telescope to 300K and 2) the beam pattern expected from the receiver when fielded on the telescope. These cryogenic measurements informed the removal of a filter, which led to improved optical efficiency and reduced side-lobes at the exit of the receiver. Holography measurements of this system suggest that the spilled power past the telescope mirrors will be less than 1\% and the main beam with its near side-lobes are consistent with the nominal telescope design. This is the first time such parameters have been confirmed in the lab prior to deployment of a new receiver. This approach is broadly applicable to millimeter and sub-millimeter instruments.

Microwave telescopes require an ever-increasing control of experimental systematics in their quest to measure the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) to exquisite levels of precision. One important systematic for ground and balloon-borne experiments is ground pickup, where beam sidelobes detect the thermal emission of the much warmer ground while the main beam is scanning the sky. This generates scan-synchronous noise in experiment timestreams, which is difficult to filter out without also deleting some of the signal from the sky. Therefore, efficient modelling of pickup can help guide the design of experiments and of analysis pipelines. In this work, we present an extension to the beamconv algorithm that enables us to generate time-ordered data (TOD) from beam-convolved sky and ground maps simultaneously. We simulate ground pickup for both a ground-based experiment and a telescope attached to a stratospheric balloon. Ground templates for the balloon experiment are obtained by re-projecting satellite maps of the Earth's microwave emission., Comment: 10 pages, 6 figures, paper 12190-165 for the "SPIE AT+I 2022 mm, sub-mmm, and Far-Infrared Detectors and Instrumentation for Astronomy XI" conference

This is a solicited whitepaper for the Snowmass 2021 community planning exercise. The paper focuses on measurements and science with the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). The CMB is foundational to our understanding of modern physics and continues to be a powerful tool driving our understanding of cosmology and particle physics. In this paper, we outline the broad and unique impact of CMB science for the High Energy Cosmic Frontier in the upcoming decade. We also describe the progression of ground-based CMB experiments, which shows that the community is prepared to develop the key capabilities and facilities needed to achieve these transformative CMB measurements., Comment: contribution to Snowmass 2021

This Snowmass 2021 White Paper describes the Cosmic Microwave Background Stage 4 project CMB-S4, which is designed to cross critical thresholds in our understanding of the origin and evolution of the Universe, from the highest energies at the dawn of time through the growth of structure to the present day. We provide an overview of the science case, the technical design, and project plan., Comment: Contribution to Snowmass 2021. arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:1908.01062, arXiv:1907.04473

Near-field radio holography is a common method for measuring and aligning mirror surfaces for millimeter and sub-millimeter telescopes. In instruments with more than a single mirror, degeneracies arise in the holography measurement, requiring multiple measurements and new fitting methods. We present HoloSim-ML, a Python code for beam simulation and analysis of radio holography data from complex optical systems. This code uses machine learning to efficiently determine the position of hundreds of mirror adjusters on multiple mirrors with few micron accuracy. We apply this approach to the example of the Simons Observatory 6m telescope., Comment: Software is publicly available at: https://github.com/McMahonCosmologyGroup/holosim-ml

Advances in cosmic microwave background (CMB) science depend on increasing the number of sensitive detectors observing the sky. New instruments deploy large arrays of superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES) bolometers tiled densely into ever larger focal planes. High multiplexing factors reduce the thermal loading on the cryogenic receivers and simplify their design. We present the design of focal-plane modules with an order of magnitude higher multiplexing factor than has previously been achieved with TES bolometers. We focus on the novel cold readout component, which employs microwave SQUID multiplexing ($\mu$mux). Simons Observatory will use 49 modules containing 60,000 bolometers to make exquisitely sensitive measurements of the CMB. We validate the focal-plane module design, presenting measurements of the readout component with and without a prototype detector array of 1728 polarization-sensitive bolometers coupled to feedhorns. The readout component achieves a $95\%$ yield and a 910 multiplexing factor. The median white noise of each readout channel is 65 $\mathrm{pA/\sqrt{Hz}}$. This impacts the projected SO mapping speed by $< 8\%$, which is less than is assumed in the sensitivity projections. The results validate the full functionality of the module. We discuss the measured performance in the context of SO science requirements, which are exceeded., Comment: Accepted to The Astrophysical Journal

The Simons Observatory (SO) is a Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) experiment to observe the microwave sky in six frequency bands from 30GHz to 290GHz. The Observatory -- at $\sim$5200m altitude -- comprises three Small Aperture Telescopes (SATs) and one Large Aperture Telescope (LAT) at the Atacama Desert, Chile. This research note describes the design and current status of the LAT along with its future timeline., Comment: 4 pages, 1 figure

The Simons Observatory (SO) is a cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiment from the Atacama Desert in Chile comprising three small-aperture telescopes (SATs) and one large-aperture telescope (LAT). In total, SO will field over 60,000 transition-edge sensor (TES) bolometers in six spectral bands centered between 27 and 280 GHz in order to achieve the sensitivity necessary to measure or constrain numerous cosmological quantities. In this work, we focus on the SATs which are optimized to search for primordial gravitational waves that are detected as parity-odd polarization patterns called a B-modes on degree scales in the CMB. Each SAT employs a single optics tube with TES arrays operating at 100 mK. The high throughput optics system has a 42 cm aperture and a 35-degree field of view coupled to a 36 cm diameter focal plane. The optics consist of three metamaterial anti-re ection coated silicon lenses. Cryogenic ring baffles with engineered blackbody absorbers are installed in the optics tube to minimize the stray light. The entire optics tube is cooled to 1 K. A cryogenic continuously rotating half-wave plate near the sky side of the aperture stop helps to minimize the effect of atmospheric uctuations. The telescope warm baffling consists of a forebaffle, an elevation stage mounted co-moving shield, and a fixed ground shield that together control the far side-lobes and mitigates ground-synchronous systematics. We present the status of the SAT development., Comment: 8 pages, 6 figures

We study the effect of the so-called ion potential or non-kinetic energies of bombarding ions during ionized physical vapor deposition of Cu using molecular dynamics simulations. In particular we focus on low energy HiPIMS deposition, in which the potential energy of ions can be comparable to their kinetic energy. The ion potential, as a short-ranged repulsive force between the ions of the film-forming material and the surface atoms (substrate and later deposited film), is defined by the Ziegler-Biersack-Littmark potential. Analyzing the final structure indicates that, including the ion potential leads to a slightly lower interface mixing and fewer point defects (such as vacancies and interstitials), but resputtering and twinning have increased slightly. However, by including the ion potential the collision pattern changes. We also observed temporary formation of a ripple/pore with 5~nm height when the ion potential is included. The latter effect can explain the pores in HiPIMS deposited Cu thin films observed experimentally by atomic force microscopy., Comment: 8 pages, 5 figures

We study systematic effects from half-wave plates (HWPs) for cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiments using full-sky time-domain beam convolution simulations. Using an optical model for a fiducial spaceborne two-lens refractor telescope, we investigate how different HWP configurations optimized for dichroic detectors centred at 95 and 150 GHz impact the reconstruction of primordial B-mode polarization. We pay particular attention to possible biases arising from the interaction of frequency dependent HWP non-idealities with polarized Galactic dust emission and the interaction between the HWP and the instrumental beam. To produce these simulations, we have extended the capabilities of the publicly available beamconv code. To our knowledge, we produce the first time-domain simulations that include both HWP non-idealities and realistic full-sky beam convolution. Our analysis shows how certain achromatic HWP configurations produce significant systematic polarization angle offsets that vary for sky components with different frequency dependence. Our analysis also demonstrates that once we account for interactions with HWPs, realistic beam models with non-negligible cross-polarization and sidelobes will cause significant B-mode residuals that will have to be extensively modelled in some cases.

Accurate optical modeling is important for the design and characterisation of current and next-generation experiments studying the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). Geometrical Optics (GO) cannot model diffractive effects. In this work, we discuss two methods that incorporate diffraction, Physical Optics (PO) and the Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD). We simulate the optical response of a ground-based two-lens refractor design shielded by a ground screen with time-reversed simulations. In particular, we use GTD to determine the interplay between the design of the refractor's forebaffle and the sidelobes caused by interaction with the ground screen., Comment: 12 pages, 10 figures, Part of SPIE Proceedings Volume 11453, Millimeter, Submillimeter, and Far-Infrared Detectors and Instrumentation for Astronomy X

We present deposition and characterization of multilayers consisting of 20 repetitions of 15 $\r{A}$ thick permalloy Ni$_{80}$Fe$_{20}$ at. \% (Py) and 5 $\r{A}$ Pt. The samples were prepared by two different sputter deposition methods, namely dc magnetron sputtering (dcMS) and high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS), that represent low and moderate ionized flux fraction of the film forming material, respectively, for deposition of the Py layers. The effect of substrate roughness, working gas pressure and sputter power on the in-plane uniaxial magnetic anisotropy of the films are studied. The multilayers were characterized by X-ray reflectivity and diffraction, and by magneto-optical Kerr effect (MOKE). It is shown that HiPIMS deposition produces multilayers with unique surface roughness regardless of the substrate surface roughness. Multilayers prepared by both dcMS and HiPIMS deposition present a strong (111) texture normal to the film plane. The results show that utilizing HiPIMS for deposition of the Py layer leads to a minimum interface mixing between individual layers compared to dcMS deposition performed at sputter power. This is associated with the smooth surface of Py deposited by HiPIMS. However, this sharp interface results in higher coercivity and an opening in the hard axis hysteresis loops while multilayers with intermixing present well defined in-plane uniaxial anisotropy i.e. a linear hard axis. Comparison with Py/Cu and Py/CuPt multilayers, prepared under identical conditions using HiPIMS, suggests that poor in-plane uniaxial anisotropy is obtained in the Py/Pt case, caused by the inverse magnetostriction arising from the large lattice mismatch between Py and Pt. The Py/Pt multilayers that exhibit interface mixing have a more relaxed interface and thus presents negligible inverse magnetostriction and have better defined anisotropy., Comment: 7 pages, 5 figures

Controlling stray light at millimeter wavelengths requires special optical design and selection of absorptive materials that should be compatible with cryogenic operating environments. While a wide selection of absorptive materials exists, these typically exhibit high indices of refraction and reflect/scatter a significant fraction of light before absorption. For many lower index materials such as commercial microwave absorbers, their applications in cryogenic environments are challenging. In this paper, we present a new tool to control stray light: metamaterial microwave absorber tiles. These tiles comprise an outer metamaterial layer that approximates a lossy gradient index anti-reflection coating. They are fabricated via injection molding commercially available carbon-loaded polyurethane (25\% by mass). The injection molding technology enables mass production at low cost. The design of these tiles is presented, along with thermal tests to 1 K. Room temperature optical measurements verify their control of reflectance to less than 1\% up to 65$\circ$ angles of incidence, and control of wide angle scattering below 0.01\%. The dielectric properties of the bulk carbon-loaded material used in the tiles is also measured at different temperatures, confirming that the material maintains similar dielectric properties down to 3 K., Comment: 10 pages, 11 figures, published in Applied Optics, selected as "Editor's pick"

We present geometrical and physical optics simulation results for the Simons Observatory Large Aperture Telescope. This work was developed as part of the general design process for the telescope; allowing us to evaluate the impact of various design choices on performance metrics and potential systematic effects. The primary goal of the simulations was to evaluate the final design of the reflectors and the cold optics which are now being built. We describe non-sequential ray tracing used to inform the design of the cold optics, including absorbers internal to each optics tube. We discuss ray tracing simulations of the telescope structure that allow us to determine geometries that minimize detector loading and mitigate spurious near-field effects that have not been resolved by the internal baffling. We also describe physical optics simulations, performed over a range of frequencies and field locations, that produce estimates of monochromatic far field beam patterns which in turn are used to gauge general optical performance. Finally, we describe simulations that shed light on beam sidelobes from panel gap diffraction., Comment: 15 pages, 13 figures

CMB-S4---the next-generation ground-based cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiment---is set to significantly advance the sensitivity of CMB measurements and enhance our understanding of the origin and evolution of the Universe, from the highest energies at the dawn of time through the growth of structure to the present day. Among the science cases pursued with CMB-S4, the quest for detecting primordial gravitational waves is a central driver of the experimental design. This work details the development of a forecasting framework that includes a power-spectrum-based semi-analytic projection tool, targeted explicitly towards optimizing constraints on the tensor-to-scalar ratio, $r$, in the presence of Galactic foregrounds and gravitational lensing of the CMB. This framework is unique in its direct use of information from the achieved performance of current Stage 2--3 CMB experiments to robustly forecast the science reach of upcoming CMB-polarization endeavors. The methodology allows for rapid iteration over experimental configurations and offers a flexible way to optimize the design of future experiments given a desired scientific goal. To form a closed-loop process, we couple this semi-analytic tool with map-based validation studies, which allow for the injection of additional complexity and verification of our forecasts with several independent analysis methods. We document multiple rounds of forecasts for CMB-S4 using this process and the resulting establishment of the current reference design of the primordial gravitational-wave component of the Stage-4 experiment, optimized to achieve our science goals of detecting primordial gravitational waves for $r > 0.003$ at greater than $5\sigma$, or, in the absence of a detection, of reaching an upper limit of $r < 0.001$ at $95\%$ CL., Comment: 24 pages, 8 figures, 9 tables, submitted to ApJ. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1907.04473

We explore combination of high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) and substrate bias for the epitaxial growth of Cu film on Cu (111) substrate by molecular dynamics simulation. A fully ionized deposition flux was used to represent the high ionization fraction in the HiPIMS process. To mimic different substrate bias, we assumed the deposition flux with a flat energy distribution in the low, moderate and high energy ranges. We also compared the results of fully ionized flux with results assuming a completely neutral flux, in analogy with thermal evaporation. It is confirmed that in the low energy regime, HiPIMS presents a slightly smoother surface and more interface mixing compared to that of thermal evaporation. In the moderate energy HiPIMS, however, an atomically smooth surface was obtained with a slight increase in the interface mixing compared to low energy HiPIMS. In the high energy regime, HiPIMS presents severe interface mixing with a smooth surface but limited growth due to resputtering from the surface. The results also indicate that fewer crystal defects appear in the film for moderate energy HiPIMS. We attribute this behavior to the repetition frequency of collision events. In particular high energy HiPIMS suffers from high repetition of collision events which does not allow reconstruction of the film. While in the low energy HiPIMS there are not enough events to overcome island growth. At moderate energy, collision events repeat in a manner that provides enough time for reconstruction which results in a smooth surface, fewer defects and limited intermixing., Comment: 9 pages, 5 figures

We present a compact two-lens HDPE f/1.6 refractor design that is capable of supporting a 28-deg diffraction-limited field of view at 1-mm wavelengths and contrast it to a similar two-lens refractor using silicon lenses. We compare the optical properties of these two systems as predicted by both geometrical and physical optics. The presented analysis suggests that by relaxing telecentricity requirements, a plastic two-lens refractor system can perform comparably to a similar silicon system across a wide field of view and wavelengths up to 1 mm. We show that for both telescope designs, cold stop spillover changes significantly across the field of view in a way that is somewhat inconsistent with Gaussian beam formalism and simple f-number scaling. We present results that highlight beam ellipticity dependence on both pixel location and pixel aperture size --- an effect that is challenging to reproduce in standard geometrical optics. We show that a silicon refractor design suffers from larger cross-polarization compared to the HDPE design. Our results address the limitations of solely relying on geometrical optics to assess relative performance of two optical systems. We discuss implications for future refractor designs., Comment: 15 pages, 17 figures

We provide an overview of the science case, instrument configuration and project plan for the next-generation ground-based cosmic microwave background experiment CMB-S4, for consideration by the 2020 Decadal Survey., Comment: Project White Paper submitted to the 2020 Decadal Survey, 10 pages plus references. arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:1907.04473

The Simons Observatory (SO) is a ground-based cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiment sited on Cerro Toco in the Atacama Desert in Chile that promises to provide breakthrough discoveries in fundamental physics, cosmology, and astrophysics. Supported by the Simons Foundation, the Heising-Simons Foundation, and with contributions from collaborating institutions, SO will see first light in 2021 and start a five year survey in 2022. SO has 287 collaborators from 12 countries and 53 institutions, including 85 students and 90 postdocs. The SO experiment in its currently funded form ('SO-Nominal') consists of three 0.4 m Small Aperture Telescopes (SATs) and one 6 m Large Aperture Telescope (LAT). Optimized for minimizing systematic errors in polarization measurements at large angular scales, the SATs will perform a deep, degree-scale survey of 10% of the sky to search for the signature of primordial gravitational waves. The LAT will survey 40% of the sky with arc-minute resolution. These observations will measure (or limit) the sum of neutrino masses, search for light relics, measure the early behavior of Dark Energy, and refine our understanding of the intergalactic medium, clusters and the role of feedback in galaxy formation. With up to ten times the sensitivity and five times the angular resolution of the Planck satellite, and roughly an order of magnitude increase in mapping speed over currently operating ("Stage 3") experiments, SO will measure the CMB temperature and polarization fluctuations to exquisite precision in six frequency bands from 27 to 280 GHz. SO will rapidly advance CMB science while informing the design of future observatories such as CMB-S4., Comment: Astro2020 Decadal Project Whitepaper. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1808.07445

We present the science case, reference design, and project plan for the Stage-4 ground-based cosmic microwave background experiment CMB-S4., Comment: 287 pages, 82 figures

We explore the effect of ionization fraction on the epitaxial growth of Cu film on Cu (111) substrate at room temperature. We compare thermal evaporation, dc magnetron sputtering (dcMS) and high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS). Three deposition conditions i.e. fully neutral, 50% ionized and 100% ionized flux were considered as thermal evaporation, dcMS and HiPIMS, respectively, for ~20000 adatoms. It is shown that higher ionization fraction of the deposition flux leads to smoother surfaces by two major mechanisms i.e. decreasing clustering in the vapor phase and bi-collision of high energy ions at the film surface. The bi-collision event consists of local amorphization which fills the gaps between islands followed by crystallization due to secondary collisions. We found bi-collision events to be very important to prevent island growth to become dominant and increase the surface roughness. Regardless of the deposition method, epitaxial Cu thin films suffer from stacking fault areas (twin boundaries) in agreement with recent experimental results. In addition, HiPIMS deposition presents considerable interface mixing while it is negligible in thermal evaporation and dcMS deposition, those present less adhesion accordingly., Comment: 9

The hot dense environment of the early universe is known to have produced large numbers of baryons, photons, and neutrinos. These extreme conditions may have also produced other long-lived species, including new light particles (such as axions or sterile neutrinos) or gravitational waves. The gravitational effects of any such light relics can be observed through their unique imprint in the cosmic microwave background (CMB), the large-scale structure, and the primordial light element abundances, and are important in determining the initial conditions of the universe. We argue that future cosmological observations, in particular improved maps of the CMB on small angular scales, can be orders of magnitude more sensitive for probing the thermal history of the early universe than current experiments. These observations offer a unique and broad discovery space for new physics in the dark sector and beyond, even when its effects would not be visible in terrestrial experiments or in astrophysical environments. A detection of an excess light relic abundance would be a clear indication of new physics and would provide the first direct information about the universe between the times of reheating and neutrino decoupling one second later., Comment: 5 pages + references; 1 figure; science white paper submitted to the Astro2020 decadal survey

Our current understanding of the Universe is established through the pristine measurements of structure in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and the distribution and shapes of galaxies tracing the large scale structure (LSS) of the Universe. One key ingredient that underlies cosmological observables is that the field that sources the observed structure is assumed to be initially Gaussian with high precision. Nevertheless, a minimal deviation from Gaussianityis perhaps the most robust theoretical prediction of models that explain the observed Universe; itis necessarily present even in the simplest scenarios. In addition, most inflationary models produce far higher levels of non-Gaussianity. Since non-Gaussianity directly probes the dynamics in the early Universe, a detection would present a monumental discovery in cosmology, providing clues about physics at energy scales as high as the GUT scale., Comment: 5 pages + references; Submitted to the Astro2020 call for science white papers. This version: fixed author list

We investigate the effect of atomic ordering on the magnetic anisotropy of Ni80Fe20 at.% (Py). To this end, Py films were grown epitaxially on MgO (001) using dc magnetron sputtering (dcMS) and high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS). Aside from twin boundaries observed in the latter case, both methods present high quality single crystals with cube-on-cube epitaxial relationship as verified by the polar mapping of important crystal planes. However, X-ray diffraction results indicate higher order for the dcMS deposited film towards L12 Ni3Fe superlattice. This difference can be understood by the very high deposition rate of HiPIMS during each pulse which suppresses adatom mobility and ordering. We show that the dcMS deposited film presents biaxial anisotropy while HiPIMS deposition gives well defined uniaxial anisotropy. Thus, higher order achieved in the dcMS deposition behaves as predicted by magnetocrystalline anisotropy i.e. easy axis along the [111] direction that forced in the plane along the [110] direction due to shape anisotropy. The uniaxial behaviour in HiPIMS deposited film then can be explained by pair ordering or more recent localized composition non-uniformity theories. Further, we studied magnetoresistance of the films along the [100] directions using an extended van der Pauw method. We find that the electrical resistivities of the dcMS deposited film are lower than in their HiPIMS counterparts verifying the higher order in the dcMS case., Comment: 8 pages

We introduce a publicly available full-sky beam convolution code library intended to inform the design of future cosmic microwave background (CMB) instruments and help current experiments probe potential systematic effects. The code can be used to assess the impact of optical systematics on all stages of data reduction for a realistic experiment, including analyses beyond power spectrum estimation, by generating signal timelines that may serve as input to full analysis pipelines. The design and mathematical framework of the Python code is discussed along with a few simple benchmarking results. We present a simple two-lens refracting telescope design and use it together with the code to simulate a year-long dataset for 400 detectors scanning the sky on a satellite instrument. The simulation results identify a number of sub-leading optical non-idealities and demonstrate significant B-mode residuals caused by extended sidelobes that are sensitive to polarized radiation from the Galaxy. For the proposed design and satellite scanning strategy, we show that a full physical optics beam model generates B-mode systematics that differ significantly from the simpler elliptical Gaussian model. The code is available at https://github.com/adrijd/beamconv

The Simons Observatory (SO) will observe the temperature and polarization anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) over a wide range of frequencies (27 to 270 GHz) and angular scales by using both small (0.5 m) and large (6 m) aperture telescopes. The SO small aperture telescopes will target degree angular scales where the primordial B-mode polarization signal is expected to peak. The incoming polarization signal of the small aperture telescopes will be modulated by a cryogenic, continuously-rotating half-wave plate (CRHWP) to mitigate systematic effects arising from slowly varying noise and detector pair-differencing. In this paper, we present an assessment of some systematic effects arising from using a CRHWP in the SO small aperture systems. We focus on systematic effects associated with structural properties of the HWP and effects arising when operating a HWP, including the amplitude of the HWP synchronous signal (HWPSS), and I -> P (intensity to polarization) leakage that arises from detector non-linearity in the presence of a large HWPSS. We demonstrate our ability to simulate the impact of the aforementioned systematic effects in the time domain. This important step will inform mitigation strategies and design decisions to ensure that SO will meet its science goals., Comment: 22 pages, 10 figures. Submitted to the Proceedings of SPIE: Millimeter, Submillimeter, and Far-Infrared Detectors and Instrumentation for Astronomy IX

The Simons Observatory (SO) is a new cosmic microwave background experiment being built on Cerro Toco in Chile, due to begin observations in the early 2020s. We describe the scientific goals of the experiment, motivate the design, and forecast its performance. SO will measure the temperature and polarization anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background in six frequency bands: 27, 39, 93, 145, 225 and 280 GHz. The initial configuration of SO will have three small-aperture 0.5-m telescopes (SATs) and one large-aperture 6-m telescope (LAT), with a total of 60,000 cryogenic bolometers. Our key science goals are to characterize the primordial perturbations, measure the number of relativistic species and the mass of neutrinos, test for deviations from a cosmological constant, improve our understanding of galaxy evolution, and constrain the duration of reionization. The SATs will target the largest angular scales observable from Chile, mapping ~10% of the sky to a white noise level of 2 $\mu$K-arcmin in combined 93 and 145 GHz bands, to measure the primordial tensor-to-scalar ratio, $r$, at a target level of $\sigma(r)=0.003$. The LAT will map ~40% of the sky at arcminute angular resolution to an expected white noise level of 6 $\mu$K-arcmin in combined 93 and 145 GHz bands, overlapping with the majority of the LSST sky region and partially with DESI. With up to an order of magnitude lower polarization noise than maps from the Planck satellite, the high-resolution sky maps will constrain cosmological parameters derived from the damping tail, gravitational lensing of the microwave background, the primordial bispectrum, and the thermal and kinematic Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effects, and will aid in delensing the large-angle polarization signal to measure the tensor-to-scalar ratio. The survey will also provide a legacy catalog of 16,000 galaxy clusters and more than 20,000 extragalactic sources., Comment: This paper presents an overview of the Simons Observatory science goals, details about the instrument will be presented in a companion paper. The author contribution to this paper is available at https://simonsobservatory.org/publications.php (Abstract abridged) -- matching version published in JCAP

The Simons Observatory (SO) is a new experiment that aims to measure the cosmic microwave background (CMB) in temperature and polarization. SO will measure the polarized sky over a large range of microwave frequencies and angular scales using a combination of small ($\sim0.5 \, \rm m$) and large ($\sim 6\, \rm m $) aperture telescopes and will be located in the Atacama Desert in Chile. This work is part of a series of papers studying calibration, sensitivity, and systematic errors for SO. In this paper, we discuss current efforts to model optical systematic effects, how these have been used to guide the design of the SO instrument, and how these studies can be used to inform instrument design of future experiments like CMB-S4. While optical systematics studies are underway for both the small aperture and large aperture telescopes, we limit the focus of this paper to the more mature large aperture telescope design for which our studies include: pointing errors, optical distortions, beam ellipticity, cross-polar response, instrumental polarization rotation and various forms of sidelobe pickup., Comment: Poster presented at SPIE Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation 2018

The Simons Observatory (SO) will make precise temperature and polarization measurements of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) using a set of telescopes which will cover angular scales between 1 arcminute and tens of degrees, contain over 60,000 detectors, and observe at frequencies between 27 and 270 GHz. SO will consist of a 6 m aperture telescope coupled to over 30,000 transition-edge sensor bolometers along with three 42 cm aperture refractive telescopes, coupled to an additional 30,000+ detectors, all of which will be located in the Atacama Desert at an altitude of 5190 m. The powerful combination of large and small apertures in a CMB observatory will allow us to sample a wide range of angular scales over a common survey area. SO will measure fundamental cosmological parameters of our universe, constrain primordial fluctuations, find high redshift clusters via the Sunyaev-Zel`dovich effect, constrain properties of neutrinos, and trace the density and velocity of the matter in the universe over cosmic time. The complex set of technical and science requirements for this experiment has led to innovative instrumentation solutions which we will discuss. The large aperture telescope will couple to a cryogenic receiver that is 2.4 m in diameter and nearly 3 m long, creating a number of technical challenges. Concurrently, we are designing the array of cryogenic receivers housing the 42 cm aperture telescopes. We will discuss the sensor technology SO will use and we will give an overview of the drivers for and designs of the SO telescopes and receivers, with their cold optical components and detector arrays.

A common optical design for a coma-corrected, 6-meter aperture, crossed-Dragone telescope has been adopted for the CCAT-prime telescope of CCAT Observatory, Inc., and for the Large Aperture Telescope of the Simons Observatory. Both are to be built in the high altitude Atacama Desert in Chile for submillimeter and millimeter wavelength observations, respectively. The design delivers a high throughput, relatively flat focal plane, with a field of view 7.8 degrees in diameter for 3 mm wavelengths, and the ability to illuminate >100k diffraction-limited beams for < 1 mm wavelengths. The optics consist of offset reflecting primary and secondary surfaces arranged in such a way as to satisfy the Mizuguchi-Dragone criterion, suppressing first-order astigmatism and maintaining high polarization purity. The surface shapes are perturbed from their standard conic forms in order to correct coma aberrations. We discuss the optical design, performance, and tolerancing sensitivity. More information about CCAT-prime can be found at ccatobservatory.org and about Simons Observatory at simonsobservatory.org., Comment: Event: SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation, 2018, Austin, Texas, USA; Proceedings Volume 10700, Ground-based and Airborne Telescopes VII; 1070041 (2018)

The Simons Observatory (SO) is an upcoming experiment that will study temperature and polarization fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) from the Atacama Desert in Chile. SO will field both a large aperture telescope (LAT) and an array of small aperture telescopes (SATs) that will observe in six bands with center frequencies spanning from 27 to 270~GHz. Key considerations during the SO design phase are vast, including the number of cameras per telescope, focal plane magnification and pixel density, in-band optical power and camera throughput, detector parameter tolerances, and scan strategy optimization. To inform the SO design in a rapid, organized, and traceable manner, we have created a Python-based sensitivity calculator with several state-of-the-art features, including detector-to-detector optical white-noise correlations, a handling of simulated and measured bandpasses, and propagation of low-level parameter uncertainties to uncertainty in on-sky noise performance. We discuss the mathematics of the sensitivity calculation, the calculator's object-oriented structure and key features, how it has informed the design of SO, and how it can enhance instrument design in the broader CMB community, particularly for CMB-S4., Comment: Submitted to the Proceedings of SPIE: Millimeter, Submillimeter, and Far-Infrared Detectors and Instrumentation for Astronomy IX

We study the microstructure and magnetic properties of Ni80Fe20 thin films grown by high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS), and compare with films grown by dc magnetron sputtering (dcMS). The films were grown under a tilt angle of 35{\deg} to identical thickness of 37 nm using both techniques, at different pressure (0.13-0.73 Pa) and substrate temperature (room temperature and 100 {\deg}C). All of our films display effective in-plane uniaxial anisotropy with square easy axis and linear hard axis magnetization traces. X-ray diffraction reveals that there is very little change in grain size within the pressure and temperature ranges explored. However, variations in film density, obtained by X-ray reflectivity measurements, with pressure have a significant effect on magnetic properties such as anisotropy field (Hk) and coercivity (Hc). Depositions where adatom energy is high produce dense films, while low adatom energy results in void-rich films with higher Hk and Hc. The latter applies to our dcMS deposited films at room temperature and high pressure. However, the HiPIMS deposition method gives higher adatom energy than the dcMS and results in dense films with low Hk and Hc. The surface roughness is found to increase with increased pressure, in all cases, however it showed negligible contribution to the increase in Hk and Hc.

We use the one-dimensional object-oriented particle-in-cell Monte Carlo collision code oopd1 to explore the charged particle densities, the electronegativity, the electron energy probability function (EEPF), and the electron heating mechanism in a single frequency capacitively coupled oxygen discharge when the applied voltage amplitude is varied. We explore discharges operated at 10 mTorr, where electron heating within the plasma bulk (the electronegative core) dominates, and at 50 mTorr where sheath heating dominates. At 10 mTorr the discharge is operated in combined drift-ambipolar (DA) and $\alpha$-mode and at 50 mTorr it is operated in pure $\alpha$-mode. At 10 mTorr the effective electron temperature is high and increases with increased driving voltage amplitude, while at 50 mTorr the effective electron temperature is much lower, in particular within the electronegative core, where it is roughly 0.2 - 0.3 eV, and varies only a little with the voltage amplitude.