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Anemia in HIV-infected patients improves with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART); however, it may still be associated with mortality among patients receiving treatment. We examined the associations of anemia severity and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) at HAART initiation and during monthly prospective follow-up with mortality among 40,657 adult HIV-infected patients receiving HAART in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Proportional hazards models were used to examine the associations of anemia severity and IDA at HAART initiation and during follow-up with mortality. A total of 6,261 deaths were reported. Anemia severity at HAART initiation and during follow-up was associated with an increasing risk of mortality (trend tests P < 0.001). There was significantly higher mortality risk associated with IDA at HAART initiation and during follow-up versus no anemia or iron deficiency (both P < 0.001). These associations differed significantly by gender, body mass index, and iron supplement use (all interaction test P < 0.001). The magnitude of association was stronger among men. Mortality risk with severe anemia was 13 times greater versus no anemia among obese patients, whereas it was only two times greater among underweight patients. Higher mortality risk was observed among iron supplement users, irrespective of anemia severity. Anemia and IDA were significantly associated with a higher mortality risk in patients receiving HAART. Iron supplementation indicated an increased mortality risk, and its role in HIV infections should be examined in future studies. Given the low cost of assessing anemia, it can be used frequently to identify high-risk patients in resource-limited settings.

OBJECTIVES There are few data on ART failure rates and drug resistance from Tanzania, where there is a wide diversity of non-B HIV subtypes. We assessed rates and predictors of virological failure in HIV-infected Tanzanians and describe drug resistance patterns in a subgroup of these patients. METHODS ART-naive, HIV-1-infected adults enrolled in a randomized controlled trial between November 2006 and 2008 and on ≥24 weeks of first-line NNRTI-containing ART were included. Population-based genotyping of HIV-1 protease and reverse transcriptase was performed on stored plasma from patients with virological failure (viral load >1000 copies/mL at ≥24 weeks of ART) and at baseline, where available. RESULTS A total of 2403 patients [median (IQR) age 37 (32-43) years; 70% female] were studied. The median (IQR) baseline CD4+ T cell count was 128 (62-190) cells/μL. Predominant HIV subtypes were A, C and D (92.2%). The overall rate of virological failure was 14.9% (95% CI 13.2%-16.1%). In adjusted analyses, significant predictors of virological failure were lower CD4+ T cell count (P = 0.01) and non-adherence to ART (P

Raphael Z Sangeda,1,2 Fausta Mosha,3 Said Aboud,4 Appolinary Kamuhabwa,5 Guerino Chalamilla,6,† Jurgen Vercauteren,2 Eric Van Wijngaerden,7 Eligius F Lyamuya,4 Anne-Mieke Vandamme2,8 1Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 2Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; 3Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 4Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 5Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 6Management and Development for Health (MDH), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; 7Department of General Internal Medicine, University Hospitals, KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Belgium; 8Center for Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Unidade de Microbiologia, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal †Dr Guerino Chalamilla passed away in November 2015 Background: Measurement of adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) can serve as a proxy for virologic failure in resource-limited settings. The aim of this study was to determine the factors underlying nonadherence measured by three methods. Patients and methods: This is a prospective longitudinal cohort of 220 patients on ART at Amana Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. We measured adherence using a structured questionnaire combining a visual analog scale (VAS) and Swiss HIV Cohort Study Adherence Questionnaire (SHCS-AQ), pharmacy refill, and appointment keeping during four periods over 1 year. Overall adherence was calculated as the mean adherence for all time points over the 1 year of follow-up. At each time point, adherence was defined as achieving a validated cutoff for adherence previously defined for each method. Results: The proportion of overall adherence was 86.4% by VAS, 69% by SHCS-AQ, 79.8% by appointment keeping, and 51.8% by pharmacy refill. Forgetfulness was the major reported reason for patients to skip their medications. In multivariate analysis, significant predictors to good adherence were older age, less alcohol consumption, more advanced World Health Organization clinical staging, and having a lower body mass index with odds ratio (CI): 3.11 (1.55–6.93), 0.24 (0.09–0.62), 1.78 (1.14–2.84), and 0.93 (0.88–0.98), respectively. Conclusion: We found relatively good adherence to ART in this setting. Barriers to adherence include young age and perception of well-being. Keywords: self-report, appointment keeping, pharmacy refill, adherence barriers, resource-limited settings, AIDS

OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors for loss to follow-up (LTFU) in an HIV-infected pediatric population in Dar es Salaam Tanzania between 2004 and 2011. DESIGN: Longitudinal analysis of 6236 HIV-infected children. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study of 6236 pediatric patients enrolled in care and treatment in Dar es Salaam from October 2004 to September 2011. LTFU was defined as missing a clinic visit for >90 days for patients on ART and for >180 days for patients in care and monitoring. The relationship of baseline and time-varying characteristics to the risk of LTFU was examined using a Cox proportional hazards model. RESULTS: A total of 2130 children (34%) were LTFU over a median follow-up of 16.7 months (interquartile range 3.4-36.9). Factors independently associated with a higher risk of LTFU were age

Although the beneficial effects of antiretroviral (ARV) therapy for preventing mother-to-child transmission are indisputable, studies in developed and developing countries have reported conflicting findings on the association between ARV exposure and adverse birth outcomes. We conducted a prospective observational study at 10 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care and treatment centers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Multivariate log-binomial regression was used to investigate the associations between ARV use and adverse birth outcomes among HIV-negative HIV-exposed infants. Our findings demonstrate an increased risk of adverse birth outcomes associated with the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy. Further studies are needed to investigate the underlying mechanisms and identify the safest ARV regimens for use during pregnancy.

Objective The objective of this study is to determine the incidence rate and risk factors of tuberculosis (TB) among HIV-infected adults accessing antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Tanzania. Design A prospective observational study among HIV-infected adults attending HIV clinics in Dar es Salaam. Methods We estimated TB incidence rates among HIV-infected patients prior to and after ART initiation. We used Cox proportional hazard regressions to determine the predictors of incident TB among HIV-infected adults enrolled in the HIV care and treatment programme. Results We assessed 67 686 patients for a median follow-up period of 24 (interquartile range: 8-49) months; 7602 patients were diagnosed with active TB. The TB incidence rate was 7.9 [95% confidence interval (95% CI), 7.6-8.2] per 100 person-years prior to ART initiation, and 4.4 (95% CI, 4.2-4.4) per 100 person-years for patients receiving ART. In multivariate analyses, patients on ART in the first 3 months had a 57% higher risk of TB (hazard ratio: 1.57, 95% CI, 1.47-1.68) than those not on ART, but the risk significantly decreased with increasing duration of ART. Risk factors for incident TB included being male, having low BMI or middle upper arm circumference, lower CD4 cell count and advanced WHO disease stage. There was seasonal variation for incident TB, with higher risk observed following the rainy seasons (May, June and November). Conclusion In TB endemic regions, HIV-infected patients initiating ART, particularly men and those with poor nutritional status, should be closely monitored for active TB at ART initiation. In addition to increasing the access to ART, interventions should be considered to improve nutritional status among HIV-infected patients.

Introduction: HIV-related stigma and discrimination and disrespect and abuse during childbirth are barriers to use of essential maternal and HIV health services. Greater understanding of the relationship between HIV status and disrespect and abuse during childbirth is required to design interventions to promote women's rights and to increase uptake of and retention in health services; however, few comparative studies of women living with HIV (WLWH) and HIV-negative women exist. Methods: Mixed methods included interviews with postpartum women (n = 2000), direct observation during childbirth (n = 208), structured questionnaires (n = 50), and in-depth interviews (n = 18) with health care providers. Bivariate and multivariate regressions analyzed associations between HIV status and disrespect and abuse, whereas questionnaires and in-depth interviews provided insight into how provider attitudes and workplace culture influence practice. Results: Of the WLWH and HIV-negative women, 12.2% and 15.0% reported experiencing disrespect and abuse during childbirth (P = 0.37), respectively. In adjusted analyses, no significant differences between WLWH and HIV-negative women's experiences of different types of disrespect and abuse were identified, with the exception of WLWH having greater odds of reporting non-consented care (P = 0.03). None of the WLWH reported violations of HIV confidentiality or attributed disrespect and abuse to their HIV status. Provider interviews indicated that training and supervision focused on prevention of vertical HIV transmission had contributed to changing the institutional culture and reducing HIV-related violations. Conclusions: In general, WLWH were not more likely to report disrespect and abuse during childbirth than HIV-negative women. However, the high overall prevalence of disrespect and abuse measured indicates a serious problem. Similar institutional priority as has been given to training and supervision to reduce HIV-related discrimination during childbirth should be focused on ensuring respectful maternity care for all women.

Background: Home visits by community health workers (CHW) could be effective in identifying pregnant women in the community before they have presented to the health system. CHW could thus improve the uptake of antenatal care (ANC), HIV testing, and prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services. Methods: Over a 16-month period, we carried out a quantitative evaluation of the performance of CHW in reaching women early in pregnancy and before they have attended ANC in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Results: As part of the intervention, 213 CHW conducted more than 45,000 home visits to about 43,000 pregnant women. More than 75% of the pregnant women identified through home visits had not yet attended ANC at the time of the first contact with a CHW and about 40% of those who had not yet attended ANC were in the first trimester of pregnancy. Over time, the number of pregnant women the CHW identified each month increased, as did the proportion of women who had not yet attended ANC. The median gestational age of pregnant women contacted for the first time by a CHW decreased steadily and significantly over time (from 21/22 to 16 weeks, P-value for test of trend

Background Reduced cell-mediated immunity associated with pregnancy may cause a flaring or exacerbation of some skin conditions. Little is known about the magnitude of and risk factors for skin diseases among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected antiretroviral therapy-naive pregnant women. Methods Cross-sectional study of 1078 HIV-infected antiretroviral therapy-naive pregnant women was conducted in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Skin diagnoses were mainly clinical. Log-binomial regression models were used to explore factors associated with the outcomes. Results About 84% of the women were in World Health Organization (WHO) HIV stage I. Median CD4+ count was 405 × 106 cells/l. The prevalence of any skin disease was 18%. Fungal infections (11%), genital ulcers (7%), and viral infections (5%) were the most common skin conditions. Skin infections were 2.64 times more common in HIV stage III (95% CI 1.51–4.62) compared to stage I. Fungal infections were 1.77 times common among single, divorced, and widowed women than among married women (95% CI 1.16–2.69), 2.8 times common among women in HIV stage III (95% CI 1.18–6.64) compared to stage I. Genital ulcers were significantly more common among women whose source of income was their own compared with those who got full support from partners, and among WHO HIV stage III disease compared to stage I. Conclusion The burden of skin diseases was relatively low. Advanced HIV stage was associated with a range of skin conditions. CD4+ cell count was not related to skin infection prevalence.

We assembled a prospective cohort of 3144 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected children aged 5 years on the other hand was associated with less increase in WAZ score after 6 months of ART (P < 0.001). These findings suggest that although ART improved the growth of the HIV-infected children in Tanzania, adjunct nutritional interventions may be needed to ensure that the growth of these children is optimized to the greatest extent possible.

The development of low-cost point-of-care technologies to improve HIV treatment is a major focus of current research in resource-limited settings. We assessed associations of body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)) at antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation and weight change after 1 mo of treatment with mortality, morbidity, and CD4 T cell reconstitution. A prospective cohort of 3389 Tanzanian adults initiating ART enrolled in a multivitamin trial was followed at monthly clinic visits (median: 19.7 mo). Proportional hazard models were used to analyze mortality and morbidity associations, whereas generalized estimating equations were used for CD4 T cell counts. The median weight change at 1 mo of ART was +2.0% (IQR: -0.4% to +4.6%). The association of weight loss at 1 mo with subsequent mortality varied significantly by baseline BMI (P = 0.011). Participants with ≥2.5% weight loss had 6.43 times (95% CI: 3.78, 10.93 times) the hazard of mortality compared with that of participants with weight gains ≥2.5%, if their baseline BMI was 0.05). Weight loss as early as 1 mo after ART initiation can identify adults at high risk of adverse outcomes. Studies identifying reasons for and managing early weight loss are needed to improve HIV treatment, with particular urgency for malnourished adults initiating ART. The parent trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00383669.

Disrespect and abuse (D&A) during facility-based childbirth is a topic of growing concern and attention globally. Several recent studies have sought to quantify the prevalence of D&A, however little evidence exists about effective interventions to mitigate disrespect and abuse, and promote respectful maternity care. In an accompanying article, we describe the process of selecting, implementing, and evaluating a package of interventions designed to prevent and reduce disrespect and abuse in a large urban hospital in Tanzania. Though that study was not powered to detect a definitive impact on reducing D&A, the results showed important changes in intermediate outcomes associated with this goal. In this commentary, we describe the factors that enabled this effect, especially the participatory approach we adopted to engage key stakeholders throughout the planning and implementation of the program. Based on our experience and findings, we conclude that a visible, sustained, and participatory intervention process; committed facility leadership; management support; and staff engagement throughout the project contributed to a marked change in the culture of the hospital to one that values and promotes respectful maternity care. For these changes to translate into dignified care during childbirth for all women in a sustainable fashion, institutional commitment to providing the necessary resources and staff will be needed.

Background There is emerging evidence that disrespect and abuse (D&A) during facility-based childbirth is prevalent in countries throughout the world and a barrier to achieving good maternal health outcomes. However, much work remains in the identification of effective interventions to prevent and eliminate D&A during facility-based childbirth. This paper describes an exploratory study conducted in a large referral hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania that sought to measure D&A, introduce a package of interventions to reduce its incidence, and evaluate their effectiveness. Methods After extensive consultation with critical constituencies, two discrete interventions were implemented: (1) Open Birth Days (OBD), a birth preparedness and antenatal care education program, and (2) a workshop for healthcare providers based on the Health Workers for Change curriculum. Each intervention was designed to increase knowledge of patient rights and birth preparedness; increase and improve patient-provider and provider-administrator communication; and improve women’s experience and provider attitudes. The effects of the interventions were assessed using a pre-post design and a range of tools: pre-post questionnaires for OBD participants and pre-post questionnaires for workshop participants; structured interviews with healthcare providers and administrators; structured interviews with women who gave birth at the study facility; and direct observations of patient-provider interactions during labor and delivery. Results Comparisons before and after the interventions showed an increase in patient and provider knowledge of user rights across multiple dimensions, as well as women’s knowledge of the labor and delivery process. Women reported feeling better prepared for delivery and provider attitudes towards them improved, with providers reporting higher levels of empathy for the women they serve and better interpersonal relationships. Patients and providers reported improved communication, which direct observations confirmed. Additionally, women reported feeling more empowered and confident during delivery. Provider job satisfaction increased substantially from baseline levels, as did user reports of satisfaction and perceptions of care quality. Conclusions Collectively, the outcomes of this study indicate that the tested interventions have the potential to be successful in promoting outcomes that are prerequisite to reducing disrespect and abuse. However, a more rigorous evaluation is needed to determine the full impact of these interventions.

(See the editorial commentary by Martineau on pages 373–5.) Successful antiretroviral therapy (ART) for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected individuals reduces viral load, restores host immune responses, and provides protection against opportunistic infections [1, 2]. HIV-infected individuals in sub-Saharan Africa often initiate ART at low CD4+ T-cell counts and as a result are at high risk for opportunistic infections and death during the significant amount of time needed to reconstitute their immune systems [3, 4]. Accordingly, interventions that hasten CD4+ T-cell recovery or promote well-regulated and robust immune responses may prolong and improve quality of life for individuals receiving ART. Vitamin D may be such an intervention because of its potent immunomodulatory effects on both adaptive and innate immune responses [5, 6]. By using data from a prospective cohort study, we recently reported that vitamin D deficiency was associated with increased hazard of death but not change in CD4+ T-cell count over time among adults initiating ART in Tanzania [7]. Consequently, the relationship between vitamin D and mortality may be mediated by decreased incidence or severity of opportunistic infections. In a previous cohort study of pregnant women in Tanzania not receiving ART, low vitamin D levels (

Objective To explore the predictors of weight loss after highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) initiation in a large cohort of HIV-infected adults living in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Design Cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of a cohort of HIV-infected adults on HAART. Methods HIV-infected adults (n = 18 965) were enrolled between November 2004 to December 2009 in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Log-binomial regression and Cox proportional hazard regression were used to explore the predictors of short-term (3 months) and long-term significant weight loss (≥ 5%) after HAART initiation. Results At 3 months after HAART initiation, 8% patients lost greater than or equal to 5% weight. Underweight patients at initiation gained more weight than other body mass index (BMI) groups. Younger or older than age group 30-39, lower socioeconomic status (SES), higher BMI, lower hemoglobin, difficulty breathing, loss of appetite, nausea/vomiting at baseline were associated with the risk of significant weight loss at 3 months after initiation. During a median follow-up period of 10 months [interquartile range (IQR) 4-20 months], 31% patients had experienced an initial significant weight loss after HAART initiation. In addition to time-varying CD4 cell count and hemoglobin level, age, sex, baseline BMI and having loss of appetite, and nausea/vomiting at baseline were associated with the risk of long-term significant weight loss. Conclusion Our study suggested that a significant percentage of patients continue to lose weight after HAART initiation. Our findings on the effect of socio-demographics, symptoms and diseases, biomedical indicators in relation to weight loss provide important information that has significant practical implications.

Background. Poor nutritional status is associated with immunologic impairment and adverse health outcomes among adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Methods. We investigated body mass index (BMI), middle upper arm circumference (MUAC), and hemoglobin (Hgb) concentrations at initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in 18,271 HIV-infected Tanzanian adults and their changes in the first 3 months of ART, in relation to the subsequent risk of death. Results. Lower BMI, MUAC, and Hgb concentrations at ART initiation were strongly associated with a higher risk of death within 3 months. Among patients who survived .3 months after ART initiation, those with a decrease in weight, MUAC, or Hgb concentrations by 3 months had a higher risk of death during the first year. After 1 year, only a decrease in MUAC by 3 months after ART initiation was associated with a higher risk of death. Weight loss was associated with a higher risk of death across all levels of baseline BMI, with the highest risk observed among patients with BMI ,17 kg/m 2 (relative risk, 7.9; 95% confidence interval, 4.4‐14.4). Conclusions. Poor nutritional status at ART initiation and decreased nutritional status in the first 3 months of ART were strong independent predictors of mortality. The role of nutritional interventions as adjunct therapies to ART merits further investigation.

Objective: To determine the relationship between sex and antiretroviral therapy (ART) outcomes in an urban Tanzanian setting. Design: Longitudinal analysis of a cohort of HIV-infected adult men and women on ART enrolled at the Management and Development for Health (MDH)-President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) HIV care and treatment program in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Methods: Clinical and immunologic responses to ART were compared between HIV-infected men and women enrolled from November 2004 to June 2008. Cox regression analyses were used to study sex differences with regard to mortality, immunologic failure (WHO, 2006) and loss to follow-up, after adjusting for other risk factors for the outcomes. Results: Four thousand, three hundred and eighty-three (34%) men and 8459 (66%) women were analyzed. Men were significantly more immunocompromised than women at enrollment in terms of stage IV disease (27 vs. 23%, P < 0.001) and mean CD4 + cell count (123 vs. 136 cells/μl, P< 0.001). In multivariate analyses, men had a significantly higher risk of overall mortality [hazard ratio 1.19, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.05-1.30, P < 0.001], immunologic nonresponse defined as CD4 cell count less than 100 cells/μl after at least 6 months of initiating ART (hazard ratio 1.74, 95% CI 1.44-2.11, P

Anemia is often a comorbidity of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Many cross-sectional studies have been conducted on anemia and HIV, but few, if any, have addressed incidence of anemia prospectively. A longitudinal analysis was conducted in 48,068 nonpregnant HIV-infected adults in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, seen at Management and Development for Health-U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief HIV care and treatment programs between 2004 and 2011. Almost 56% (N = 27,184) of study participants had anemia (hemoglobin < 11 g/dL) at the time of enrollment at the clinic. Female gender, low body mass index (BMI), low CD4 T-cell count, high levels of liver enzyme alanine aminotransferase, antiretroviral treatment (ART) regimens, and concurrent tuberculosis treatment were all independently significantly associated with an increased risk of anemia. Low BMI and low CD4 T-cell count were independently significantly associated with an increased risk for iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Higher BMI status and ART use were associated with recovery from anemia. Anemia, including IDA, is a comorbidity that is associated with other adverse consequences (e.g., low BMI and CD4 T-cell count) among individuals with HIV infection, including those on ART. Interventions to prevent anemia and its complications need to be examined in the context of future studies.

Background In many countries, rates of facility-based childbirth have increased substantially in recent years. However, insufficient attention has been paid to the acceptability and quality of maternal health services provided at facilities and, consequently, maternal health outcomes have not improved as expected. Disrespect and abuse during childbirth is increasingly being recognized as an indicator of overall poor quality of care and as a key barrier to achieving improved maternal health outcomes, but little evidence exists to describe the scope and magnitude of this problem, particularly in urban areas in low-income countries. Methods This paper presents findings from an assessment of the prevalence of disrespectful and abusive behaviors during facility-based childbirth in one large referral hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Client reports of disrespect and abuse (D&A) were obtained through postpartum interviews immediately before discharge from the facility with 1914 systematically sampled women and from community follow-up interviews with 64 women four to six weeks post-delivery. Additionally, 197 direct observations of the labor, delivery, and postpartum period were conducted to document specific incidences of disrespect and abuse during labor and delivery, which we compared with women’s reports. Results During postpartum interviews, 15 % of women reported experiencing at least one instance of D&A. This number was dramatically higher during community follow-up interviews, in which 70 % of women reported any experience of D&A. During postpartum interviews, the most common forms of D&A reported were abandonment (8 %), non-dignified care (6 %), and physical abuse (5 %), while reporting for all categories of D&A, excluding detention and non consented care, was above 50 % during community follow-up interviews. Evidence from direct observations of client-provider interactions during labor and delivery confirmed high rates of some disrespectful and abusive behaviors. Conclusions This study is one of the first to quantify the prevalence of disrespect and abuse during facility-based childbirth in a large public hospital in an urban setting. The difference in respondent reports between the two time periods is striking, and more research is needed to determine the most appropriate methodologies for measuring this phenomenon. The levels and types of disrespect and abuse reported here represent fundamental violations of women’s human rights and are symptomatic of failing health systems. Action is urgently needed to ensure acceptable, quality, and dignified care for all women.

Background Mother-to-child transmission of HIV remains an important public health problem in sub-Saharan Africa. As HIV testing and linkage to PMTCT occurs in antenatal care (ANC), major challenges for any PMTCT option in developing countries, including Tanzania, are delays in the first ANC visit and a low overall number of visits. Community health workers (CHWs) have been effective in various settings in increasing the uptake of clinical services and improving treatment retention and adherence. At the beginning of this trial in January 2013, the World Health Organization recommended either of two medication regimens, Option A or B, for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT). It is still largely unclear which option is more effective when implemented in a public healthcare system. This study aims to determine the effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, acceptability, and feasibility of: (1) a community health worker (CWH) intervention and (2) PMTCT Option B in improving ANC and PMTCT outcomes. Methods/Design This study is a cluster-randomized controlled health systems implementation trial with a two-by-two factorial design. All 60 administrative wards in the Kinondoni and Ilala districts in Dar es Salaam were first randomly allocated to either receiving the CHW intervention or not, and then to receiving either Option B or A. Under the standard of care, facility-based health workers follow up on patients who have missed scheduled appointments for PMTCT, first through a telephone call and then with a home visit. In the wards receiving the CHW intervention, the CHWs: (1) identify pregnant women through home visits and refer them to antenatal care; (2) provide education to pregnant women on antenatal care, PMTCT, birth, and postnatal care; (3) routinely follow up on all pregnant women to ascertain whether they have attended ANC; and (4) follow up on women who have missed ANC or PMTCT appointments. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov:EJF22802. Registration date: 14 May 2013. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1745-6215-15-359) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

To determine the prevalence and predictors of cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL) among HIV-infected women in Tanzania, a cross-sectional study was conducted among HIV-infected women at HIV care and treatment clinics. A Papanicolaou (Pap) smear was used as a screening tool for detection of cervical SIL. From December 2006 to August 2009, 1365 HIV-infected women received cervical screening. The median age was 35 (interquartile range [IQR]: 30–42) years, and the median CD4 + cell count was 164 (IQR: 80–257) cells/mm3. The prevalence of cervical SIL was 8.7% (119/1365). In multivariate analysis, older age (≥50 versus 30–3: PR, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.01–2.36, p for trend = 0.03) and cervical inflammation (PR, 1.73; 95% CI, 1.16–2.60, p = 0.008) were associated with an increased risk of cervical SIL. Women with advanced WHO HIV disease stage (IV versus I/II: PR, 3.45; 95% CI, 1.35–8.85, p for trend = 0.01) had an increased risk for high-grade SIL. In resource-limited settings where it is not feasible to provide cervical cancer prevention services to all HIV-infected women, greater efforts should focus on scaling-up services among those who are older than 50 years, with lower CD4 cell counts and advanced HIV disease stage.

Background Few studies have described time-based trends of clinical and demographic characteristics of children enrolling in HIV and AIDS care and treatment services. We present findings of a study that explored time-based trends of baseline characteristics among children enrolling into 26 public HIV care facilities in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Methods Children enrolled between October 2004 and September 2011 was included in these analyses. The year of enrollment was used as the primary predictor of interest, and log linear and linear regressions model were used to analyze dichotomous and continuous variables respectively. P-values under 0.05 were considered significant. Results Among the 6,579 children enrolled, the proportion with advanced disease at enrollment increased from 35% to 58%, mean age increasing from 5.0 to 6.2 years (p

Background: Adherence rates of ≥95% to antiretroviral therapy (ART) are necessary to maintain viral suppression in HIV-infected individuals. We identified predictors of nonadherence to scheduled antiretroviral drug pickup appointments in a large HIV care and treatment program in Tanzania. Methods: We performed a prospective cohort study of 44, 204 HIV-infected adults on ART between November 2004 and September 2012. Multivariate generalized estimating equation for repeated binary data was used to estimate the relative risk and 95% confidence intervals of nonadherence. Results: Nonadherence was significantly greater among patients with high CD4 counts, high body mass indices, males, younger patients, patients with longer durations on ART, and those with perceived low social support. Conclusions: Targeted interventions should be developed to improve ART adherence among healthier, younger, and more experienced patients who are on ART for longer durations within HIV care and treatment programs. Social support for patients on ART should be emphasized.

Health system responsiveness measures quality of care from the patient’s perspective, an important component of ensuring adherence to medication and care among HIV patients. We examined health system responsiveness in private clinics serving HIV patients in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. We surveyed 640 patients 18 or older receiving care at one of 10 participating clinics, examining socioeconomic factors, HIV regimen, and self-reported experience with access and care at the clinic. Ordered logistic regression, adjusted for clustering of the clinic sites, was used to measure the relationships between age, gender, education, site size and overall quality of care rating, as well as between the different HSR domains and overall rating. Overall, patients reported high levels of satisfaction with care received. Confidentiality, communication, and respect were particularly highly rated, while timeliness received lower ratings despite relatively short wait times, perhaps indicating high expectations when receiving care at a private clinic. Respect, confidentiality, and promptness were significantly associated with overall rating of health care, while provider skills and communication were not significantly associated. Patients reported that quality of service and confidentiality, rather than convenience of location, were the most important factors in their choice of a clinic. Site size (patient volume) was also positively correlated with patient satisfaction. Our findings suggest that, in the setting of urban private-sector clinics, flexible clinics hours, prompt services, and efforts to improve respect, privacy and confidentiality may prove more helpful in increasing visit adherence than geographic accessibility. While a responsive health system is valuable in its own right, more work is needed to confirm that improvements in health system responsiveness in fact lead to improved adherence to care.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate risk factors for maternal mortality among HIV-infected women in Tanzania. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: HIV care and treatment clinics in Dar es Salaam Tanzania. POPULATION: HIV-infected pregnant women. METHODS: Data were collected for all patients enrolled in an HIV/AIDS care and treatment program. Between November 2004 and September 2011 there were 18 917 women pregnant at least once during the follow-up. Thirteen percent of these women had more than one pregnancy with 21 645 pregnancies occurring. Logistic regression was used to explore the predictors of maternal death among these women. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Maternal mortality. RESULTS: During the study period 363 maternal deaths occurred giving a maternal mortality ratio of 1729 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1553-1905] per 100 000 live births. Being wasted [odds ratio (OR) 3.38 95% CI 2.58-4.45] or anemic (OR 2.26 95% CI 1.70-3.00) was associated with a higher risk of maternal mortality. Women who were initiated on antiretroviral therapy before their pregnancy had a 55% decreased risk of maternal mortality (95% CI 0.29-0.70) compared with women who were not. The risk of maternal mortality decreased with the length of time on antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy by 8% for each additional month (OR 0.92 95% CI 0.88-0.96). CONCLUSIONS: Maternal mortality was high among HIV-infected women. Initiating women on antiretroviral therapy as early as possible and providing nutritional interventions during pregnancy should be considered as means to reduce the maternal mortality among these women. (c) 2014 Nordic Federation of Societies of Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Background and Methods: This cross-sectional study aimed at determining the prevalence and risk factors for severe anemia, severe microcytic anemia, and severe normocytic anemia among HIV-infected individuals aged >15 years. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify the risk factors for anemia. Results: Data from 40 408 patients were analyzed, showing an overall prevalence of 22% for severe anemia. The risk of developing severe anemia increased by 49% among patients with a body mass index of 2, by approximately 2-fold among patients with the World Health Organization (WHO) stage III, and by 3-fold among patients with WHO stage IV illness. Severe normocytic anemia was uniquely increased among patients aged ≥50 years, among those with chronic diarrhea and Kaposi's sarcoma, and those taking cotrimoxazole. Conclusion: There was a high prevalence of severe anemia among adults infected with HIV. Focused identification of anemia should be based on the hemoglobin and mean corpuscular volume measurements.

Background. With the rapid rollout of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), there has been an increasing concern about cardiovascular risks related to ART. However, data from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected populations from this region are very limited. Methods. Among 6385 HIV-infected adults in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, we investigated the nonfasting lipid changes over 3 years following ART initiation and their associations with different first-line ART agents that are commonly used in SSA. Results. In the first 6 months of ART, the prevalence of dyslipidemia decreased from 69% to 54%, with triglyceride (TG) decreasing from 127 mg/dL to 113 mg/dL and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol increasing from 39 mg/dL to 52 mg/dL. After 6 months, TG returned to its baseline level and increased to 139 mg/dL at 3 years; total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol continued to increase whereas HDL cholesterol leveled off. The prevalence of dyslipidemia increased to 73% after a 3-year follow-up. In multivariate analyses, patients on zidovudine-containing regimens had a greater reduction in TG levels at 6 months (−16.0 vs −6.3 mg/dL), and a lower increase at 3 years compared to patients on stavudine-containing regimens (2.1 vs 11.7 mg/dL, P< .001); patients on nevirapine-based regimens had a higher increase in HDL cholesterol levels at 3 years compared to those on efavirenz-based regimens (13.6 vs 9.5 mg/dL, P= .01). Conclusions. Our findings support the latest World Health Organization guidelines on the substitution of stavudine in first-line ART in resource-limited settings, and provide further evidence for selection of lipid-friendly ART for patients in SSA.

Clinical management of patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection often relies on markers of disease progression, primarily CD4+ T-cell count and HIV load, to guide treatment plans [1]. Both CD4+ T-cell count and HIV load are routinely monitored in developed countries. However, in many resource-limited settings, routine viral load assessment is not in the national guidelines because of the high cost of testing and other logistical difficulties [2]. Accordingly, low-cost markers of HIV disease severity may improve HIV treatment in resource-limited settings. Serum albumin is a plasma protein produced by the liver that has a role in many physiologic processes, including vasodilation, endothelial cell apoptosis, and antioxidant reactions [3, 4]. Individuals with conditions such as malnutrition, chronic inflammation, enteropathy, or liver disease can have reduced serum albumin concentrations [4]. As a result, the serum albumin concentration can be considered an indicator of overall health, and studies have shown that a low serum albumin concentration is a strong predictor of mortality for various acute and chronic illnesses [5–8]. Several studies of HIV-infected individuals have determined that hypoalbuminemia (defined as a serum albumin concentration of

To evaluate the prevalence of HIV/hepatitis B virus (HBV) co-infection and relationship between HIV/HBV and health outcomes in a cohort of HIV-infected adults receiving antiretroviral treatment (ART) in urban Tanzania.Clinical and immunologic responses to ART were compared longitudinally between HIV mono (HIV) and HIV/HBV co-infected (HIV/HBV) adults enrolled between November 2004 and September 2011 at the Management and Development for Health (MDH)-PEPFAR HIV Care and Treatment program in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.The prevalence of HIV/HBV co-infection was 6.2% (1079/17,539). Compared to HIV patients, HIV/HBV patients were more likely to be male, younger, and more immunosuppressed at ART initiation. Median ART duration was 18.6 [interquartile range (IQR) 4.9-29.5] and 18.2 (IQR 4.2-27.2) months in HIV and HIV/HBV patients, respectively. In multivariate analyses, a trend towards a higher risk of mortality was observed in HIV/HBV patients {hazard ratio 1.18 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.98-1.42], P = 0.07} as well as lower CD4(+) cell counts throughout recovery (P 0.01) and higher risk of moderate-to-severe hepatotoxicity (P values 0.01 for alanine transaminase 120 and200 IU/l). There was a higher risk of mortality in HIV/HBV patients vs. HIV patients on non-tenofovir (TDF)-containing ART [hazard ratio 1.28 (95% CI 1.02-1.61), P 0.03], whereas there was no difference in the risk of mortality observed in HIV/HBV patients vs. HIV patients on TDF-containing ART [hazard ratio 0.70 (95% CI 0.34-1.44), P 0.33]; interaction P = 0.30.HBV co-infection significantly impacted ART outcomes in this Tanzanian HIV-infected population. Further research is needed to confirm the potential beneficial effects of TDF on mortality in HIV/HBV co-infected individuals in these settings.

Shortages of health care workers (HCWs) represents a serious challenge to ensuring effective HIV care in resource-limited settings (RLS). Stress, motivation, and job satisfaction have been linked with HCW retention and are important in addressing HCW shortages. In this cross-sectional study HCW stress, motivation and perceived ability to meet patient needs were assessed in PEPFAR-supported urban HIV care and treatment clinics (CTCs) in Tanzania.A self-administered questionnaire measuring motivation, stress, and perceived ability to and meet patient needs was given to HCWs at 16 CTCs. Scales measuring HCW satisfaction, motivation, and stress were developed using principle components analysis. Hierarchical linear models were used to explore the association of HCW and site characteristics with reported satisfaction, stress, motivation, and ability to meet patients' needs.Seventy-three percent (279) of HCWs completed the questionnaire. Most (73%) HCWs reported minimal/no work-related stress, with 48% reporting good/excellent motivation, but 41% also reporting feeling emotionally drained. Almost all (98%) reported feeling able to help their patients, with 68% reporting work as rewarding. Most reported receipt of training and supervision, with good availability of resources. In the multivariate model, direct clinical providers reported lower motivation than management (p0.05) and HCWs at medium-sized sites reported higher motivation than HCWs at larger sites (p0.05). HCWs at small and medium sites were more likely to feel able to help patients than those from larger sites (p0.05 and p0.001 respectively).Despite significant patient loads, HCWs in these PEPFAR-supported CTCs reported high levels of motivation, job satisfaction, ability to meet patients' needs, low levels of stress but significant emotional toll. Understanding the relationship between support systems such as strong supervision and training and these outcomes is critical in designing interventions to improve motivation, reduce stress and increase retention of HCWs.

Objectives: Monitoring antiretroviral treatment (ART) outcomes is essential for assessing the success of HIV care and treatment programs in resource-limited settings (RLS). Methods: Longitudinal analyses of clinical and immunologic parameters in HIV-infected adults initiated on ART between November 2004 and June 2008 at Management and Development for Health (MDH)-Presidents Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief PEPFAR supported HIV care and treatment clinics in Tanzania. Results: A total of 12 842 patients were analyzed (65.9% female, median baseline CD4 count, 106 cells/mm3). Significant improvements in immunologic status were observed with an increase in CD4 count to 298 (interquartile range [IQR] 199-416), 372 (256-490) and 427 (314-580) cells/mm3, at 1, 2, and 3 years, respectively. Overall mortality was 13.1% (1682 of 12 842). Male sex, World Health Organization (WHO) stage III/IV, CD4 3, hemoglobin (Hgb) Conclusions: Closer monitoring of males and patients with advanced HIV disease following ART initiation may improve clinical and immunologic outcomes in these individuals.

To assess health-care worker (HCW) awareness, interest and engagement in quality improvement (QI) in HIV care sites in Tanzania. Cross-sectional survey distributed in May 2009. Sixteen urban HIV care sites in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1 year after the introduction of a quality management program. Two hundred seventy-nine HCWs (direct care, clinical support staff and management). HCW perceptions of care delivered, rates of engagement, knowledge and interest in QI. HCW-identified barriers to and facilitators of the delivery of quality HIV care. Two hundred seventy-nine (73%) of 382 HCWs responded to the survey. Most (86%) felt able to meet clients' needs. HCW-identified facilitators of quality included: teamwork (88%), staff communication (79%), positive work environment (75%) and trainings (84%). Perceived barriers included: problems in patients' lives (73%) and too few staff or too high patient volumes (52%). Many HCWs knew about specific QI activities (52%) or had been asked for input on QI (63%), but fewer (40.5%) had participated in activities and only 20.1% were currently QI team members. Managers were more likely to report QI involvement than direct care or clinical support staff (P < 0.01). No difference in QI involvement was seen based on patient load or site type. HCWs can provide important insights into barriers and facilitators of providing quality care and can be effectively engaged in QI activities. HCW participation in efforts to improve services will ensure that HIV/AIDS quality of care is achieved and maintained as countries strive for universal antiretroviral access.

Background Individuals living with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa generally take more than 90% of prescribed doses of antiretroviral therapy (ART). This number exceeds the levels of adherence observed in North America and dispels early scale-up concerns that adherence would be inadequate in settings of extreme poverty. This paper offers an explanation and theoretical model of ART adherence success based on the results of an ethnographic study in three sub-Saharan African countries. Methods and Findings Determinants of ART adherence for HIV-infected persons in sub-Saharan Africa were examined with ethnographic research methods. 414 in-person interviews were carried out with 252 persons taking ART, their treatment partners, and health care professionals at HIV treatment sites in Jos, Nigeria; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; and Mbarara, Uganda. 136 field observations of clinic activities were also conducted. Data were examined using category construction and interpretive approaches to analysis. Findings indicate that individuals taking ART routinely overcome economic obstacles to ART adherence through a number of deliberate strategies aimed at prioritizing adherence: borrowing and “begging” transport funds, making “impossible choices” to allocate resources in favor of treatment, and “doing without.” Prioritization of adherence is accomplished through resources and help made available by treatment partners, other family members and friends, and health care providers. Helpers expect adherence and make their expectations known, creating a responsibility on the part of patients to adhere. Patients adhere to promote good will on the part of helpers, thereby ensuring help will be available when future needs arise. Conclusion Adherence success in sub-Saharan Africa can be explained as a means of fulfilling social responsibilities and thus preserving social capital in essential relationships., Using ethnographic data from Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda, Norma Ware and colleagues examine why levels of adherence to HIV/AIDS drugs are so much higher in sub-Saharan Africa than in North America., Editors' Summary Background. The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemic has killed more than 25 million people since 1981, and about 30 million people (22 million in sub-Saharan Africa alone) are currently infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS. HIV destroys immune system cells, leaving infected individuals susceptible to other infections. Early in the AIDS epidemic, most HIV-infected individuals died within ten years but in 1996, combination antiretroviral therapy (ART)—a mixture of powerful drugs—was developed. For HIV-infected people living in affluent, developed countries, HIV/AIDS became a chronic disease, but for the millions of infected people living in low- and middle-income countries, HIV/AIDS remained a death sentence—ART was simply too expensive. In 2003, this situation was declared a global health emergency. Today, through the concerted efforts of governments, international organizations, and funding bodies, nearly one-third of the people in developing and transitional countries who are in immediate need of life-saving ART receive free, reliable supplies of the drugs they need. Why Was This Study Done? For ART to work, it must be taken regularly. If drug doses are missed, the virus can rebound and resistance to ART is more likely to develop. In poor countries, even though free antiretroviral drugs are increasingly available, many obstacles to good adherence to ART remain. These include economic obstacles (for example, the cost of traveling to clinics and the loss of earning associated with clinic attendance), and social, cultural, and behavioral barriers. Some patients fear disclosure, for example. Others receive conflicting messages about the benefits of ART. However, despite worries that the scale-up of ART provision in developing countries would be dogged by inadequate adherence, people living with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa generally take more than 90% of their prescribed doses of ART, a better level of adherence than in North America. In this study, the researchers investigate why ART adherence is so high in sub-Saharan Africa by analyzing qualitative data from an ethnographic study done in Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda. Qualitative data are often used to address “how” and “why” research questions: ethnography is a comprehensive qualitative approach to describing and explaining human behavior and culture. What Did the Researchers Do and Find? For their study, the researchers interviewed 158 patients, 45 treatment partners (lay-people who help HIV-positive people keep to their treatment), and 49 health care workers. Patients were asked about their experiences of ART and about the help they received from their treatment partners; partners were asked about the type of help they gave and about their feelings about this help; health care workers were asked to describe a typical clinic visit and to indicate how adherence was discussed. From these interviews and observations of clinic sessions, the researchers identified several strategies used by patients and their treatment partners to overcome economic obstacles to ART adherence. These included borrowing and “begging” funds to pay for travel to clinics and making “impossible choices” to prioritize adherence, and “doing without.” The researchers' analysis also indicates that the prioritization of adherence to ART reflects the importance of relationships as a resource for managing economic hardship. So, for example, they found that treatment partners and health care workers expected patients to adhere to ART (which, by improving patients' health, improves their ability to support themselves and their families) and made their expectations known, thereby creating a responsibility among patients to adhere. Patients, in turn, adhered to their treatment to promote good will from their helpers and thus ensure their continuing help. What Do These Findings Mean? The findings offer a possible explanation of adherence success in sub-Saharan Africa. The high level of adherence to ART can be explained as a means of fulfilling social responsibilities. Adherence, the researchers suggest, not only improves personal health (the main driver for ART adherence in resource-rich environments) but also preserves “social capital” in essential relationships. In other words, in sub-Saharan Africa, adherence to treatment may protect the relationships that individuals living in extreme poverty rely on to help them survive. Additional Information. Please access these Web sites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000011. This study is further discussed in a PLoS Medicine Perspective by Agnes Binagwaho and Niloo Ratnayake Information is available from the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases on HIV infection and AIDS HIV InSite has comprehensive information on all aspects of HIV/AIDS, including an article about to antiretroviral therapy Information is available from Avert, an international AIDS charity, on HIV and AIDS in Africa (including detailed information on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria and Uganda) and on providing AIDS drug treatment for millions The World Health Organization provides information about universal access to HIV treatment (in several languages) The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also provides information on global efforts to deal with the HIV/AIDS pandemic

Background Youth have been reported to be at a higher risk of acquiring STIs with significant adverse health and social consequences. Knowledge on the prevailing risky practices is an essential tool to guide preventive strategies. Methods Youth aged between 18 and 25 years attending an STI clinic were recruited. Social, sexual and demographic characteristics were elicited using a structured standard questionnaire. Blood samples were tested for syphilis and HIV infections. Urethral, high vaginal and cervical swabs were screened for common STI agents. Results A total of 304 youth were studied with mean age of 21.5 and 20.3 years for males and females respectively. 63.5% of youth were seeking STI care. The mean age of coitache was 16.4 and 16.2 years for males and females respectively. The first sexual partner was significantly older in females compared to male youth (23.0 vs 16.8 years) (p < 0.01). 93.2% of male youth reported more than one sexual lifetime partner compared to 63.0% of the females. Only 50% of males compared to 43% of females had ever used a condom and fewer than 8.3% of female youth used other contraceptive methods. 27.1% of pregnancies were unplanned and 60% of abortions were induced. 42.0% of female youth had received gifts/money for sexual favours. The HIV prevalence was 15.3% and 7.5% for females and males respectively. The prevalence of other STIs was relatively low. Among male youth, use of alcohol or illicit drugs was associated with increased risk of HIV infection. However, the age of sexual initiation, number of sexual partners or the age of the first sexual partner were not associated with increased risk of being HIV infected. Conclusion Most female youth seen at the STI clinic had their first sexual intercourse with older males. Youth were engaging in high risk unprotected sexual practices which were predisposing them to STIs and unplanned pregnancies. There is a great need to establish more youth-friendly reproductive health clinics, encourage consistent and correct use of condoms, delay in sexual debut and avoid older sexual partners in females.

Background Syndromic management of STIs has been advocated as simplified and cheap approach. Youth have been reported to be at increased risk of acquiring STIs which can facilitate HIV transmission. We have investigated the relationship between the syndromic management and specific aetiology diagnosis and its relationship with HIV infection and health seeking behaviour among youth attending a reproductive health clinic in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Methods Between September 1998 and February 1999 among 1895 adolescents and youth below 25 years seen in the clinic 199 (10.5%) were randomly selected and consented to participate in the study. A standard questionnaire was administered. Blood and vaginal or urethral specimens were taken and investigated for STI causative agents. Results Among a total of 199 studied adolescents and youth 22.6 % were teenagers, with fewer females 17.8% than males; 27.5% (p < 0.018). 20.8% of the females compared to 11.5% in males were HIV infected. Genital discharge was the most common complaint which was reported in 54.1% of male and 63.4 % of female patients. All males with gonorrhoea and four out of five with Chlamydia were given appropriate treatment with syndromic management, while 28% women with gonorrhoea or Chlamydia received appropriate treatment by syndromic management. All patients found with active syphilis by serology had not complained of genital ulcers and would not have been assigned to syndromic treatment for syphilis at the initial visit. Conclusion The burden of STIs in this youth population is large indicating that youth are at increased risk of STIs and will certainly require youth friendly clinics. There is a need to refine the current syndromic management guidelines.

In January 2013, over 800 experts in maternal health came together in Arusha, Tanzania, to present the latest evidence on improving the quality of care for women during pregnancy and childbirth.