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Minimizing the fiber property distribution would have the potential to improve the pulp properties and the process efficiency of chemimechanical pulp. To achieve this, it is essential to improve the level of knowledge of how evenly distributed the sulfonate concentration is between the individual chemimechanical pulp fibers. Due to the variation in quality between pulpwood and sawmill chips, as well as the on-chip screening method, it is difficult to develop an impregnation system that ensures the even distribution of sodium sulfite (Na

To extend the application of cost-effective high-yield pulps in packaging, strength and barrier properties are improved by advanced-strength additives or by hot-pressing. The aim of this study is to assess the synergic effects between the two approaches by using nanocellulose as a bulk additive, and by hot-pressing technology. Due to the synergic effect, dry strength increases by 118% while individual improvements are 31% by nanocellulose and 92% by hot-pressing. This effect is higher for mechanical fibrillated cellulose. After hot-pressing, all papers retain more than 22% of their dry strength. Hot-pressing greatly increases the paper’s ability to withstand compressive forces applied in short periods of time by 84%, with a further 30% increase due to the synergic effect of the fibrillated nanocellulose. Hot-pressing and the fibrillated cellulose greatly decrease air permeability (80% and 68%, respectively) for refining pretreated samples, due to the increased fiber flexibility, which increase up to 90% using the combined effect. The tear index increases with the addition of nanocellulose, but this effect is lost after hot-pressing. In general, fibrillation degree has a small effect which means that low- cost nanocellulose could be used in hot-pressed papers, providing products with a good strength and barrier capacity.

High yield pulps (HYP), manufactured in mechanical and chemimechanical pulping processes, are mainly used in graphic papers and paper grades where a high bulk is preferable, like in paperboards. Moreover, packaging papers with very high demands on both dry and wet strength could be manufactured from HYP in a near future. Preferred bonds between fibre components (long fibres, shortened fibres and fines) in the various paper grades are quite different. In the review, plausible effects of mechanical interlocking, intermolecular interactions (“physical bonding”), hydrogen bonds, intermixing of polymers, additives and possible specific interactions in the formation of strong bonds in sheet structures from HYP are discussed. A required condition for high bond strength in sheets from HYP furnishes is that fibre components are forced into sufficiently close contact. This is to a great extent impeded if the fibre walls are too stiff. Consequently, the current review focuses on both how fibre fractions should preferably be developed for different end uses and how suitable bonds might be achieved in different paper grades. The ideal type of bonds is certainly different depending on the demands on the final paper quality.

It is known that the strength properties of wood-based paper materials can be enhanced via hot-pressing techniques. Today, there is a desire not only for a change from fossil-based packaging materials to new sustainable bio-based materials, but also for more effective and eco-friendly solutions for improving the dry and wet strength of paper and board. Against this background, hot pressing of paper made from high yield pulp (HYP), rich in lignin, becomes highly interesting. This study investigated the influence of pressing temperature and native lignin content on the properties of paper produced by means of hot pressing. Kraft pulps of varied lignin content (kappa numbers: 25, 50, 80) were produced at pilot scale from the same batch by varying the cooking time. We then studied the effect of lignin content by evaluating the physical properties of Rapid Köthen sheets after hot pressing in the temperature range of 20°C–200°C with a constant nip pressure of 7 MPa. The pilot-scale cooked pulps were compared with reference samples of mill-produced northern bleached soft-wood kraft (NBSK) pulp and mill-produced chemithermomechanical pulp (CTMP). Generally, the results demonstrated that lignin content had a significant effect on both dry and wet tensile index. All of the pilot cooked pulps with increased lignin content had a higher tensile index than the reference NBSK pulp. To obtain high tensile index, both dry and wet, the pressing temperature should be set high, preferably at least 200°C; that is, well above the glass transition temperature (Tg) for lignin. Moreover, the lignin content should preferably also be high. All kraft pulps investigated in this study showed a linear relationship between wet strength and lignin content.

Broader use of bio-based fibres in packaging becomes possible when the mechanical properties of fibre materials exceed those of conventional paperboard. Hot-pressing provides an efficient method to improve both the wet and dry strength of lignin-containing paper webs. Here we study varied pressing conditions for webs formed with thermomechanical pulp (TMP). The results are compared against similar data for a wide range of other fibre types. In addition to standard strength and structural measurements, we characterise the induced structural changes with X-ray microtomography and scanning electron microscopy. The wet strength generally increases monotonously up to a very high pressing temperature of 270 °C. The stronger bonding of wet fibres can be explained by the inter-diffusion of lignin macromolecules with an activation energy around 26 kJ mol−1 after lignin softening. The associated exponential acceleration of diffusion with temperature dominates over other factors such as process dynamics or final material density in setting wet strength. The optimum pressing temperature for dry strength is generally lower, around 200 °C, beyond which hemicellulose degradation begins. By varying the solids content prior to hot-pressing for the TMP sheets, the highest wet strength is achieved for the completely dry web, while no strong correlation was observed for the dry strength.

The hypothesis is that it should be possible to modify papermaking conditions in line with the softening properties of high yield pulp fibres and achieve similar strength properties to conventional chemical pulp based paper. We therefore investigated the rheological and physical properties of high yield pulp based papers during hot-pressing. Our results confirm that increased temperature combined with sufficient pressure enables permanent densification by softening of lignin, producing very high tensile strength. This treatment also significantly improved the wet tensile strength in comparison to bleached kraft pulp without using wet strength agents. The high yield pulps used here were spruce based thermomechanical pulp, chemi-thermomechanical pulp, and high temperature chemi-thermomechanical pulp, and birch-aspen based neutral sulphite semi chemical pulp, with spruce-pine based bleached kraft pulp as reference. Rapid Köhten sheets of 150 g / m 2 150\hspace{0.1667em}\text{g}/{\text{m}^{2}} and 50 % dryness were hot-pressed in a cylinder-press at 20–200 °C, 7 MPa, and 1 m/min. The mechanical properties showed great improvements in these high yield pulp papers, with tensile index increased to 75 kNm/kg and compression strength index to 45 kNm/kg; levels close to and better than bleached kraft. Wet strength increased to 16 Nm/g compared to 5 Nm/g for bleached kraft.

The main objective of the current study was to demonstrate that it is possible to enhance strength properties of sheets from spruce HT-CTMP and CTMP furnishes up to the same level as is common on sheets from softwood kraft pulps by changing conditions in papermaking. To achieve that, sheets of spruce HT-CTMP and CTMP were consolidated at densities close to that of the reference bleach kraft pulp by pressing at press nip temperatures well above the tack and softening temperatures of lignin. On sheets from spruce CTMP (CSF 420 ml), where the fibers were surface treated with cationic starch, it was possible to reach tensile index at the same level as on sheets from the untreated reference kraft pulp. The compression strength (SCT) of CTMP and HT-CTMP sheets, which were achieved at the highest press nip temperature (200 °C) in the study, was equal to or higher than that of the reference kraft pulp sheets. The results show that there is a great yet unexploited potential in papermaking from spruce HT-CTMP and CTMP furnishes, which could be utilized in manufacturing of products where very high requirements upon strength is demanded.

This study was carried out on sheets from spruce CTMP fibers, which are surface treated with a mix of cationic starch and CMC and blended with 20% bleach softwood chemical pulp fibers before handsh ...

The Layer-by-Layer (LbL) deposition technique was used to treat fibres before papermaking on a pilot scale. Following a laboratory pre-study performed earlier to determine the adsorption isotherms ...

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to investigate what might be relevant to younger children’s understanding of a number line and how teaching can be designed according to variation theory to give pupils the opportunity to develop an understanding of the number line as a tool for mathematical thinking.Design/methodology/approach– A Learning Study was conducted by mathematics teachers at Sjöstadsskolan in Stockholm. Variation theory was used as a theory of learning. In order to use the number line as a tool in mathematical thinking, pupils have to discern what is important for this form of representation of the numeral system. Critical aspects from other studies with similar learning objects have been taken into consideration for pre-test design. These aspects supplemented and enhanced the analysis of the results and the results were consistent with earlier learning studies’.Findings– Four critical features, for younger pupils’ understanding of how the number line can be constructed, have been established in the study: the number line can have a different range (e.g. 0-20 or 30-60), correlation between the distance and value, two reference points are needed to place a third number and determine the scale, and the correlation between a part and whole.Originality/value– Learning Study is emphasized as a powerful and structured model for teacher driven research aiming to develop the praxis. The use of experiences and results from other studies is recommended.

The purpose of this article is to catalogue in a systematic way the available information about factors that may influence the outcome and variability of cascade impactor (CI) measurements of pharmaceutical aerosols for inhalation, such as those obtained from metered dose inhalers (MDIs), dry powder inhalers (DPIs) or products for nebulization; and to suggest ways to minimize the influence of such factors. To accomplish this task, the authors constructed a cause-and-effect Ishikawa diagram for a CI measurement and considered the influence of each root cause based on industry experience and thorough literature review. The results illustrate the intricate network of underlying causes of CI variability, with the potential for several multi-way statistical interactions. It was also found that significantly more quantitative information exists about impactor-related causes than about operator-derived influences, the contribution of drug assay methodology and product-related causes, suggesting a need for further research in those areas. The understanding and awareness of all these factors should aid in the development of optimized CI methods and appropriate quality control measures for aerodynamic particle size distribution (APSD) of pharmaceutical aerosols, in line with the current regulatory initiatives involving quality-by-design (QbD).

In this study a sack paper furnish was used. It consisted of a high-consistency kraft pulp refined in either an atmospheric pressure or a pressurized system. The pulps were subsequently low-consistency refined in an Escher-Wyss laboratory refiner to 17.5-20.5 SR. Ordinary ISO sheets and freely dried sheets were manufactured from these pulp samples to serve as reference sheets. The laboratory sheets made of pulp from the pressurized system had a higher strain at break and tensile energy adsorption index but a lower tensile index than sheets made of pulp from a conventional atmospheric highconsistency refiner. These sheets were subject to a polyelectrolyte multilayer treatment to increase the interaction between the fibres, thus enhancing the paper strength properties. The polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEM) were applied by sequentially treating fibres from an unbleached kraft pulp for sack paper production with cationic starch and anionic carboxymethyl cellulose. The multilayer treatment was only applied to 50% of the stock and both ordinary ISO sheets and freely dried sheets were prepared with one and three layers of polyelectrolyte. Evaluation of the strength properties of the sheets showed that the addition of only one layer of starch increased strain at break, tensile index, tensile energy adsorption index, and out-of-plane properties measured as Scott-bond values. Using the multilayer technique created large increases in Scott-bond, a measure of the internal bonding of the sheets. The achieved effects were significantly larger than those usually achieved by applying starch alone to enhance the out-of plane strength properties. Also, the density increased considerably when the third layer was applied, for both ISO and freely dried sheets, though the tensile strength was enhanced significantly only in the freely dried sheets.

A packet (sachet) formulation of esomeprazole for suspension has been developed for use in patients who have difficulty swallowing.This article reports the in vitro characteristics of the new esomeprazole formulation, including stability in suspension and suitability for administration orally or via enteral tubes. It also describes the pharmacokinetic profile of the esomeprazole 40-mg packet compared with that of existing solid dosage forms (capsules and tablets) in a clinical bioequivalence study.The stability in suspension of the packet formulation was assessed after reconstitution at various strengths (2.5, 10, and 40 mg) and a different pH (3.4-5.0) in strength-appropriate volumes of water held at temperatures ranging from 5 degrees C to 37 degrees C for up to 60 minutes. Suitability for oral administration was examined in terms of reconstitution time and the actual dose delivered after simulated oral administration, as well as in terms of the actual dose delivered by enteral tubes ranging in diameter from 6 to 20 Fr. Chemical stability and suspension characteristics were also analyzed using alternative reconstitution vehicles (applesauce, apple juice, and orange juice). The comparative pharmacokinetics of the packet, capsule, and tablet formulations of esomeprazole were evaluated in a randomized, open-label, 3-way crossover study in healthy volunteers, who received single 40-mg doses of each formulation. Bioequivalence was assumed if the 90% CIs for the ratios of the geometric mean AUC and CmaX were between 0.80 and 1.25. Reversephase liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection was used to assess the esomeprazole content and/or degradation products of esomeprazole in the tests for in-suspension stability, dose delivery, and acid resistance. Normal-phase liquid chromatography was used to assess the esomeprazole content of the plasma samples in the bioequivalence study.At the pH and temperature ranges investigated, the packet formulation was stable for up to 60 minutes after reconstitution. Chemical degradation was low (0.1%) for all reconstitution vehicles investigated. Reconstitution time was 2 minutes with water and 9 to 10 minutes with apple or orange juice. Dose delivery was/=98% after simulated oral administration and was generally/=96% after administration via enteral tubes. Ninety-six healthy volunteers (56 women, 40 men; mean age, 24.9 years; mean weight, 68.9 kg) participated in the randomized, crossover, comparative pharmacokinetic study of the packet and capsule/tablet formulations. The estimated ratios of the geometric mean AUC and C(max) for the packet:capsule and packet: tablet formulations were 0.98 (90% CI, 0.93-1.03) and 0.99 (90% CI, 0.94-1.04), respectively.In these analyses, the packet (sachet) formulation of esomeprazole was chemically stable in suspension and when administered orally and via enteral tubes. The formulation had a short reconstitution time, remaining fully dispersed in water for at least 30 minutes, and was dispersed in applesauce, apple juice, or orange juice without compromising its stability or dispersion characteristics. The packet formulation met the regulatory definition for bioequivalence to the tablet and capsule formulations.

A description is given regarding methods used to manufacture strong and bulky sheets from furnishes based on a broad range of surface modified CTMP qualities. Starch and CMC are adsorbed on the fibre surfaces using a multilayer or a MIX concept. It is shown that both the in-plane and out-of-plane strength for the CTMP based sheets after such surface treatment can be more than doubled at a maintained density. This can be utilized to improve bending stiffness or to reduce the basis weight in multi-ply paperboards.

This briefing note presents evidence on early grade teachers’ professional capacity and support in 17 of the most disadvantaged districts in Tanzania. The results come from a rigorous mixed-methods baseline study for an impact evaluation of the Education Quality Improvement Programme in Tanzania. The key findings on teachers from the impact evaluation study reveal some important strengths including the fact that most teachers are trained and have good early grade subject knowledge in Kiswahili and mathematics. The research also identifies four major constraints to good teaching in these disadvantaged districts. The challenges associated with these constraints are: improving curriculum and subject knowledge; improving pedagogical skills; getting teachers into the classroom; and providing monitoring and support to teachers.

Silica surfaces were consecutively treated with copolymers of cationic and anionic polyacrylamides (C-PAM and A-PAM, respectively) and the layer-by-layer build-up was continuously monitored with the aid of stagnation point adsorption reflectometry (SPAR). Four different charge densities of the cationic polymer and one charge density of the anionic polymer were studied. The solid substrate used in the investigation was an oxidized Si wafer, the charge of which was varied by performing the measurements at different pH. Adsorption measurements were performed both in deionized water and with a background electrolyte concentration of 0.01 M NaCl. The results show that the adsorption of C-PAM at pH 6 was dominated by electrostatic interactions. However, a significant nonionic contribution to the adsorption of C-PAM on SiO2 was detected-when the results of adsorption measurements conducted in deionized water and in 0.01 M NaCl were compared. At pH 9, the adsorption of C-PAM onto SiO2 was found to be geometrically restricted since the adsorption stoichiometry between the polymer charges and the charges on the surface was less than 1 irrespective of the charge of the C-PAM. Adsorption of the A-PAM onto the C-PAM covered surface increases as a function of the adsorbed charges in the first layer. Experiments showed that it was possible to form multilayers of polyelectrolytes on the SiO2 surface provided the charge of the C-PAM was high enough. The critical charge of the polyelectrolyte for the formation of multilayers was also dependent on the charge of the substrate; that is, the lower the surface charge the higher the critical charge of the C-PAM. The substrate affected the amount of polyelectrolyte adsorbed up to the fifth layer. For further layers there was almost a stoichiometric relationship between the charges of the polyelectrolytes in consecutive layers. Results from studies of the formed multilayers with a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM-D) indicated that there was a close correlation between energy dissipation into the multilayers and a decrease in the adsorption as detected with SPAR. This in turn indicates that a decrease in the reflectometer signal does not necessarily indicate a decrease in adsorption.

Protein histidine phosphorylation in eukaryotes has been sparsely studied compared to protein serine/threonine and tyrosine phosphorylation. In an attempt to rectify this by probing porcine liver cytosol with the phosphohistidine-containing peptide succinyl-Ala-His(P)-Pro-Phe-p-nitroanilide (phosphopeptide I), we observed a phosphatase activity that was insensitive towards okadaic acid and EDTA. This suggested the existence of a phosphohistidine phosphatase different from protein phosphatase 1, 2A and 2C. A 1000-fold purification to apparent homogeneity gave a 14-kDa phosphatase with a specific activity of 3 micro mol.min-1.mg-1 at pH 7.5 with 7 micro m phosphopeptide I as substrate. Partial amino-acid sequence determination of the purified porcine enzyme by MS revealed similarity with a human sequence representing a human chromosome 9 gene of hitherto unknown function. Molecular cloning from a human embryonic kidney cell cDNA-library followed by expression and purification, yielded a protein with a molecular mass of 13 700 Da, and an EDTA-insensitive phosphohistidine phosphatase activity of 9 micro mol.min-1.mg-1 towards phosphopeptide I. No detectable activity was obtained towards a set of phosphoserine-, phosphothreonine-, and phosphotyrosine peptides. Northern blot analysis indicated that the human phosphohistidine phosphatase mRNA was present preferentially in heart and skeletal muscle. These results provide a new tool for studying eukaryotic histidine phosphorylation/dephosphorylation.

Indonesia has made significant progress in increasing access to education over the last decade. Despite these impressive trends, many children do not continue their education beyond the primary and junior secondary level. While a number of factors influence a household's schooling decision, the direct and indirect costs of education are important particularly for the poorest households. The cost of education is also likely to partly explain the higher drop-out rates seen in Indonesia amongst poorer children. A number of reforms have been introduced by the Government of Indonesia to reduce the financial burden of school enrolment. These programs have been supported by recent legislation outlining the fees and contributions the schools are allowed to charge. This brief examines household education spending patterns and trends between 2003 and 2009. It aims to provide a clear picture of education spending on primary and secondary schooling to assess the extent to which this constrains participate. It looks at how spending has changed in light of the reforms designed to reduce the burden on households of sending and keeping their children in school. The brief also provides important analysis that can help to inform existing regulations on free basic education.

Indonesia each year allocates a large proportion of its total public spending to education and it is important to understand whether different groups, for instance, children from less advantageous socioeconomic backgrounds or girls benefit differentially from these public investments. It is also desirable to comprehend whether schooling translates into increases in wages that are similar in size for both for men and for women who obtain additional schooling. This paper uses the large-scale Presidential Instruction Primary School construction programme (SD INPRES) rolled out in Indonesia in the 1970s to examine the effect of increased school supply on schooling attainment: overall, by gender, and by socioeconomic background. It also constructs a new SD INPRES programme exposure variable that is used as an instrument for schooling to assess the causal effect of schooling on wages and whether the additional schooling induced by the programme had differential impacts for men and women. To preview the findings, SD INPRES programme exposure significantly increased schooling both for men and for women. Moreover, women benefitted more from the SD INPRES programme than men and so did individuals from less advantageous socioeconomic backgrounds contributing to a narrowing of schooling gaps by gender and by socioeconomic background. In addition, more schooling is found to cause higher wages for men and women and there appears to be an additional positive effect on wages for women through the additional schooling induced by the SD INPRES programme.

Objective. To compare the skills in pelvic examination technique between students who have had training with professional patients and a control group of students trained using clinical patients. Design. Prospective controlled study. Setting. University hospital. Population. Students attending three consecutive courses in obstetrics and gynecology at Karolinska University Hospital. Methods. A study group of 53 students received training in pelvic examination with professional patients and was compared with a control group of 34 students who were trained using clinical patients. Main outcome measures. The students' skills in pelvic examination technique were examined by teachers in a practical test. Students' skills were also evaluated by the students themselves and by the patients who participated in the examination. Results. Students who had training with professional patients were more skilled in performing a pelvic examination and better prepared to examine their own patients than students trained using clinical patients. Conclusions. Training with professional patients is more effective in teaching pelvic examination technique than training with clinical patients. We recommend that the use of professional patients is considered in the training of medical students.

Objective. To evaluate a clinical patient (CP) model for training in pelvic examination. Design. Prospective clinical study. Population. Students attending the course in obstetrics and gynecology and patients at Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden. Main outcome measures. Feelings, attitudes and skills of medical students and ratings from CPs in connection to training in the pelvic examination. Methods. Each student participated in two training sessions at an outpatient clinic. The student participants answered questionnaires after each clinical session to measure different aspects of experiencing distress and to themselves rate the technical performance of the examination as well as the interaction with the CP. The CP answered questions about the examination, communication, information provided by the student and how they felt about participating in a teaching session. Results. The students rated their own performance high including both interpersonal communication and the technical examination. It was felt that the teacher as well as the CP gave good support and guidance. The CPs rated interpersonal communication skills by the students high. The teaching session was regarded as important and useful by both students and CPs. Conclusions. We recommend the use of this type of training sessions where students are allowed to work more independently and train in the role as a doctor under supervision of the teacher.

OBJECTIVE: To understand the factors influencing health workers' choice to work in rural areas as a basis for designing policies to redress geographic imbalances in health worker distribution. METHODS: A cohort survey of 412 nursing and medical students in Rwanda provided unique contingent valuation data. Using these data, we performed a regression analysis to examine the determinants of future health workers' willingness to work in rural areas as measured by rural reservation wages. These data were also combined with those from an identical survey in Ethiopia to enable a two-country analysis. FINDINGS: Health workers with higher intrinsic motivation - measured as the importance attached to helping the poor - as well as those who had grown up in a rural area and Adventists who had participated in a local bonding scheme were all significantly more willing to work in a rural area. The main result for intrinsic motivation in Rwanda was strikingly similar to the result obtained for Ethiopia and Rwanda combined. CONCLUSION: Intrinsic motivation and rural origin play an important role in health workers' decisions to work in a rural area, in addition to economic incentives, while faith-based institutions can also influence the decision.

A cohort of close to 70 children born in 1967-68 was followed for estimations of serum antitoxin levels against diphtheria. During the first 3-year-period after vaccination the mean level declined from 0.05 international units (IU) to 0.03. From the year before to the year after the booster of 0.5 LF of toxoid was given at the age of 8 years, the mean level raised from 0.01 to 0.06 IU. At 18 years the mean was again down to 0.01. Between 18 and 23 years of age a difference between the sexes was seen (higher levels in men). The explanation of this phenomenon must be the extra booster given to those young men who have done their compulsory military service.

The impacts of health care investments in developing and transition countries are typically measured by inputs and general health outcomes. Missing from the health agenda are measures of performance that reflect whether health systems are meeting their objectives; public resources are being used appropriately; and the priorities of governments are being implemented. This paper suggests that good governance is central to raising performance in health care delivery. Crucial to high performance are standards, information, incentives and accountability. This paper provides a definition of good governance in health and a framework for thinking about governance issues as a way of improving performance in the health sector. Performance indicators that offer the potential for tracking relative health performance are proposed, and provide the context for the discussion of good governance in health service delivery in the areas of budget and resource management, individual provider performance, health facility performance, informal payments, and corruption perceptions. What we do and do not know about effective solutions to advance good governance and performance in health is presented for each area, drawing on existing research and documented experiences.

Latin America is marked by high and persistent inequality in income, schooling, and land ownership. In such an unequal environment, the powerful are likely to dominate politics and push for policies that protect their privileges rather than foster competition and growth. As a result, changes in policies that political elites resist may be postponed to the detriment of overall economic performance. This paper examines the relationship between structural, high inequality-measured by high levels of schooling inequality - and liberalization of the financial sector for a sample of 37 developing and developed countries for the period from 1975 to 2000. Before 2000, liberalization of the financial sector in Latin American consisted of opening credit markets that had been largely restricted, including by ending directed credit. The authors find that increases in financial liberalization were associated with bank crises and other domestic and external shocks, and that higher schooling inequality reduces the impetus for liberalization brought on by bank crises.

The impacts of education investments in developing and transition countries are typically measured by inputs and outputs. Missing from the education agenda are measures of performance that reflect whether education systems are meeting their objectives; public resources are being used appropriately; and the priorities of governments are being implemented. This paper suggests that good governance can serve as an entry point to raising institutional performance in the delivery of education services. Crucial to high performance are standards, information, incentives and accountability. This paper provides a definition of good governance in education and a framework for thinking about governance issues as a way of improving performance in the education sector. Performance indicators that offer the potential for tracking relative education performance are proposed, and provide the context for the discussion of good governance in education in the areas of budget and resource management, human resources, household payments, and corruption perceptions. What we do and do not know about effective solutions to advance good governance and performance in education is presented for each area, drawing on existing research and documented experiences.

A number of proposals today support a substantial increase in foreign aid levels to sub-Saharan Africa even though this region already receives a historically unprecedented volume of aid. This essay reviews the evidence regarding the potentially negative effects of aid dependence on state institutions, a topic which has received relatively little attention. We note several pathways through which political institutions might be adversely affected and devote particular attention to fiscal and state revenue issues. In addition to reviewing the economic literature on the aid-revenue relationship, this essay brings in the longstanding political science literature on state-building to consider the potential impact of aid dependence on the relationship between state and citizen. We conclude that states which can raise a substantial proportion of their revenues from the international community are less accountable to their citizens and under less pressure to maintain popular legitimacy. They are therefore less likely to have the incentives to cultivate and invest in effective public institutions. As a result, substantial increases in aid inflows over a sustained period could have a harmful effect on institutional development in sub-Saharan Africa.

The construction of alternating multilayers of cationic potato starch and anionic carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) was investigated in two parts. In the first part, stagnation point adsorption reflectometry (SPAR) showed that the chosen chemicals formed polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEM) upon adsorption to the silicon oxide surface. This was in accordance with earlier work. The chosen polyelectrolytes adsorbed to similar extents on the silicon oxide surface and recharged the surface enough to allow for adsorption of a consecutive layer. In the second part, the multilayer concept was tested on 80/20, 20/80% of total in mixture of mixed spruce CTMP and bleached chemical pulp in order to enhance the sheet strength properties of a typical packaging board furnish.. The multilayers yielded a significant improvement in Scott Bond values and tensile index and a marginal improvement in tensile stiffness index. The Scott Bond values were improved more than 150% for papers prepared from a furnish consisting of 80% spruce CTMP and 20% chemical pulp. Polyelectrolyte multilayers treatment also led to a slight densification of the sheets, but the polyelectrolyte multilayers treatment resulted in a more favourable density/strength relationship than that achieved with a change in the amount of chemical pulp.

Polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEM) consisting of cationic starch and anionic carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) have been applied to different pulp fibres in order to enhance the out-of-plane sheet strength properties of a typical packaging board furnish. An unbleached softwood chemical pulp was treated with multilayers consisting of two layers of cationic starch and one layer of CMC, and then mixed with different mechanical and chemimechanical pulps. Hand sheets were prepared with the aid of the Rapid Köthen sheet former from stocks consisting of 20% treated chemical pulp and 80% mechanical or chemimechanical pulp, which was either PGW from spruce, HT-CTMP from spruce or birch, or a standard spruce CTMP. Multilayer treatment significantly improved Scott Bond values and in some cases improved the tensile index, with the achieved effects being significantly larger than the effects of applying starch alone. Positive effects were obtained by treating only 20% of the furnish, showing a very high efficiency of the adsorbed multilayers. Compared to earlier work, one important finding was that the PEM treatment should preferably be applied only to the chemical pulp and not on the entire stock. It was possible to increase the out-of-plane strength properties, measured as Scott Bond values, with just a very small increase in density of the sheets. Multilayer treatment of the chemical pulp improved the joint strength between the fibres while maintaining the high bulk of the sheets prepared from the stiff mechanical and chemimechanical fibres.

The migration of doctors and nurses from Africa to rich countries has raised fears of an African medical brain drain. But empirical research on the issue has been hampered by lack of data. How many doctors and nurses have left Africa? Which countries did they leave? Where have they settled? To answer these questions we have compiled a dataset of the cumulative bilateral net flows of African-born physicians and nurses to the nine most important destination countries. It is the first dataset of bilateral migration flows specific to a skilled profession collected systematically for a large number of developing countries. This note makes the data available to the research community.

Gynaecological examinations are especially sensitive, both for the inexperienced student and for the woman being examined. To assist the students in this process, we have introduced a separate training session for medical students using so-called professional patients during the first week of the course in obstetrics and gynaecology. The aim of the study was to evaluate the outcome, attitudes and feelings towards this type of training and to gain knowledge on how to further develop the method. After the training session, students, teachers and professional patients were asked to fill in anonymously different questionnaires assessing their views on the education. In conclusion students, teachers and professional patients found this training programme with professional patients to be of great value. It was felt that the teaching session reduced stress and anxiety; the students were relieved, calmer and more secure after the training. It is strongly recommended that this type of programme with professional patients should be used for teaching gynaecological examination techniques to medical students.

Fifty-three Andersen Cascade Impactors (404 stages) have been investigated using an automated visual stage mensuration technique. A cleaning method was suggested for stages with jets smaller than nominal diameters. The impact of nonapproved jet diameters on result parameters from particle size analysis was evaluated theoretically.The jet diameters were measured using the Andersen Visual Inspection Device. A stepwise cleaning procedure was performed to recover the jets of noncompliant stages, and after each step a new stage mensuration was performed.The result of this extensive investigation, including measurements of each jet, is compared to other studies, to tolerance limits applied at AstraZeneca Lund and also to limits used by the manufacturer. Sixteen of the investigated stages were outside applied tolerance limits due to too small average diameters. Insertion of a go gauge into every jet of the stages was the only technique of those tested that increased the jet diameters toward nominal dimensions. Moreover, the relative standard deviation of the jet diameters decreased considerably after use of go gauges.Stage mensuration is a valuable technique for detection of improper jet dimensions of the Andersen Cascade Impactor, and use of go gauges is an effective cleaning method especially for jets with small diameters. However, use of stop/go gauges as a periodical quality control test on a small number of randomly selected jets was a poorly discriminating test, as both compliant and noncompliant stages would most probably pass such a test.

Polyelectrolyte multilayers of cationic and anionic starch have been used to enhance the strength properties of paper. All starches used in this investigation had a degree of substitution around 0.065. Optical reflectometry showed that a combination of cationic and anionic starch could form polyelectrolyte multilayers onto silicon oxide surfaces. The same combination of starches was then applied to unbeaten, bleached softwood kraft fibres to form three layers, i.e. a cationic/anionic/cationic starch combination. The results showed a significant increase in the paper strength properties in terms of tensile index, strain at break, and Scott Bond. The adsorbed amount of starch in the sheets, determined using an enzymatic method, was found to increase with each successive starch treatment. The increased paper strength was not only due to the increase in adsorbed amount of starch; rather, the chemical composition of the starch was also important. Cationic starch with high amylose content had a more positive effect on the paper strength properties. Furthermore, it was observed that anionic starch, despite being adsorbed in large amounts, did not contribute to the increase in tensile strength or strain at break to the same extent as did cationic starch. However, the out-of-plane properties, measured as Scott Bond properties, increased with the adsorbed amount, regardless of the chemical composition of the starch used in the outermost layer.

Protein histidine phosphorylation in eukaryotes has been sparsely studied compared to protein serine/threonine and tyrosine phosphorylation. In an attempt to rectify this by probing porcine liver cytosol with the phosphohistidine-containing peptide succinyl-Ala-His(P)-Pro-Phe-p-nitroanilide (phosphopeptide I), we observed a phosphatase activity that was insensitive towards okadaic acid and EDTA. This suggested the existence of a phosphohistidine phosphatase different from protein phosphatase 1, 2A and 2C. A 1000-fold purification to apparent homogeneity gave a 14-kDa phosphatase with a specific activity of 3 micro mol.min-1.mg-1 at pH 7.5 with 7 micro m phosphopeptide I as substrate. Partial amino-acid sequence determination of the purified porcine enzyme by MS revealed similarity with a human sequence representing a human chromosome 9 gene of hitherto unknown function. Molecular cloning from a human embryonic kidney cell cDNA-library followed by expression and purification, yielded a protein with a molecular mass of 13 700 Da, and an EDTA-insensitive phosphohistidine phosphatase activity of 9 micro mol.min-1.mg-1 towards phosphopeptide I. No detectable activity was obtained towards a set of phosphoserine-, phosphothreonine-, and phosphotyrosine peptides. Northern blot analysis indicated that the human phosphohistidine phosphatase mRNA was present preferentially in heart and skeletal muscle. These results provide a new tool for studying eukaryotic histidine phosphorylation/dephosphorylation.