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Background: Maize cultivation has considerably expanded beyond its place of origin in Central America. The successful adaptation of maize to temperate climates can be achieved by selecting genotypes that demonstrate tolerance to low temperatures, especially in cold springs. In maize, cold tolerance at the early growth stages enables early sowing, a long growing season, and eventually high yields, even in temperate climates. Maize adaptation during early growth has not been thoroughly investigated; therefore, we tested the working hypothesis that several distinct and independent adaptation strategies may be involved in maize habituation to cool temperate climates during seedling establishment. Results: We studied the effect of mild cold stress (day/night 16/12 °C) on early growth stage followed by regrowth at optimal daily temperatures (24/21 °C). Automated plant phenotyping was performed on 30 inbred lines selected from a diverse genetic pool during preliminary studies. As a result, we generated time series based on selected morphological parameters, spectral parameters, and spectral vegetation indices. These curves were clustered and four classes of maize with clearly contrasting growth modes and changes in their physiological status were distinguished at low temperatures and during regrowth. Two classes comprised either cold-sensitive (slow growth and poor physiological status in cold) or cold-tolerant (moderately fast growth and good physiological status in cold) lines. However, two other classes showed that growth rate and physiological status at low temperature is not necessarily related, for instance one class included lines with small seedlings but good physiological status and the other grouped seedlings with rapid growth despite poor physiological status. These classes clearly exhibited different modes of cold adaptation. Moreover, a class containing cold-sensitive inbred lines may represent a distinct and novel type of cold-adaptation strategy related to the arrest of coleoptile emerge related with ability to recover rapidly under favourable conditions. Conclusions: Our results support the hypothesis that maize may have several adaptation strategies to cold environments at early growth stages based on independent mechanisms. These findings suggest that maize adaptability to adverse environments is likely more complex than previously understood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many real-life situations can be extremely noisy, which makes it difficult to understand what people say. Here, we introduce a novel audiovisual virtual reality experimental platform to study the behavioral and neurophysiological consequences of background noise on processing continuous speech in highly realistic environments. We focus on a context where the ability to understand speech is particularly important: the classroom. Participants (n = 32) experienced sitting in a virtual reality classroom and were told to pay attention to a virtual teacher giving a lecture. Trials were either quiet or contained background construction noise, emitted from outside the classroom window. Two realistic types of noise were used: continuous drilling and intermittent air hammers. Alongside behavioral outcomes, we measured several neurophysiological metrics, including neural activity (EEG), eye-gaze and skin conductance (galvanic skin response). Our results confirm the detrimental effect of background noise. Construction noise, and particularly intermittent noise, was associated with reduced behavioral performance, reduced neural tracking of the teacher's speech and an increase in skin conductance, although it did not have a significant effect on alpha-band oscillations or eye-gaze patterns. These results demonstrate the neurophysiological costs of learning in noisy environments and emphasize the role of temporal dynamics in speech-in-noise perception. The finding that intermittent noise was more disruptive than continuous noise supports a "habituation" rather than "glimpsing" hypothesis of speech-in-noise processing. These results also underscore the importance of increasing the ecologically relevance of neuroscientific research and considering acoustic, temporal, and semantic features of realistic stimuli as well as the cognitive demands of real-life environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Monitoring behavioural dynamics in complex animal environments, such as poultry breeding facilities, poses a challenge. Utilising technological approaches, such as accelerometers, offers a solution to assess long-term changes in reproductive activity at an individual bird level. Specifically, these sensors measure acceleration associated with the position and movements of the body over time. However, it is important to assess the most suitable method for attaching accelerometer tags to ensure they do not negatively impact behaviour and yield high-quality data. 2. The potential of tri-axial accelerometer tags for assessing reproductive behaviour in Japanese quail was evaluated. Two attachment methods – a backpack (plastic platform with elastic bands near wing bases) and a patch (accelerometer on fabric glued to the synsacrum region) – were compared. Controls were handled similarly but without tags. Eighteen pairs of females were housed in pens and assessed immediately and 24 h after handling. After a week of habituation, a male from the same treatment group was introduced into each pen on d 8. The reproductive behaviour of the males was recorded using accelerometers and video recordings. 3. The results showed that birds with patches were able to remove their conspecific's accelerometer and displayed an increased initial immobility response compared to the control and backpack groups. The presence of accelerometer tags did not impact male/female reproductive interactions nor fear responses to a novel object. From accelerometer recordings, male reproductive behaviour was easily identified as high amplitude fluctuations in the three axial components of the acceleration vectors, which was reflected as large values of dynamic body acceleration (VeDBA). 4. In conclusion, the use of backpacks with accelerometers is a useful strategy to address highly relevant and difficult to tackle behavioural topics such as the temporal dynamic of male reproductive behaviour within breeding groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Theories assert that avoidance maintains maladaptive anxiety over time, yet a clear prospective test of this effect in the day-by-day lives of people with social anxiety disorder (SAD) is lacking. Method: We used intensive longitudinal data to test prospective relationships between social fear and social avoidance in 32 participants with SAD who reported on a total of 4256 time points. Results: Results suggested that avoidance strongly predicted future anxiety, but only in a minority of people with SAD. Relationships between anxiety and avoidance varied considerably across individuals. Pre-registered tests found that the strength of autocorrelation for social fear is a good target for future testing of prediction of exposure response. Participants with lower autocorrelations were less likely to show between-session habituation. Conclusions: Overall, results suggest avoidance maintains fear in SAD for at least some individuals, but also indicates considerable variability. Further intensive longitudinal data is needed to examine individuals with SAD across varying time courses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a multisystem degenerative disease with extra-motor components. In ALS, there is also hyperexcitability of extra-motor areas. Habituation is defined as "a response decrement" caused by repeated stimulations. Studies on evoked potential habituation can be conducted to detect cortical excitability. This study aimed to explore lack of habituation in non-motor cortical structures in ALS. Methods: Twenty-one ALS patients and 14 controls were enrolled. Recordings were obtained in 3 and 10 consecutive blocks (each containing 100 responses) during right median somatosensory evoked potential (SEP) and bilateral visual evoked potential (VEP), respectively. "Habituation" and "lack of habituation" were defined as the amount of increase or decrease in the average N20 or N75-P100 amplitude of the last blocks compared to the first blocks, respectively. Comparative analyses were performed between patient and control groups, as well as the first and last block within groups. Results: Paired sample t-test showed that in control group N20 peak amplitude of last blocks were significantly lower than first block values (p = 0.025) that indicate the physiological habituation as expected. On the other hand, there was not such a difference in ALS group (p = 0.239) which indicated lack of habituation. Conclusions: Our study results suggest somatosensory hyperexcitability in line with cortical reorganization in ALS patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The jaguar (Panthera onca) tourism (JT) has expanded across Latin America, but its impacts on sustainability dimensions remain unclear. This systematic review analyzed 88 studies on JT impacts published between 1989 and 2022. Database searches yielded 3,401 initial studies, refined to 88 relevant documents meeting review criteria. Results were compiled into impact tables categorizing 98 specific positive and negative environmental, economic, and sociocultural JT impacts. Key findings demonstrate that, while JT can bring conservation benefits, economic growth, and cultural appreciation of jaguars, negative impacts like habituation, culture commodification, and limited economic reach also occur. Environmental impacts accounted for 41.8% of documented effects, economic impacts 23.5%, and sociocultural impacts 34.7%. Half were positive and half negative. The review reveals the complex trade-offs involved in JT. A comprehensive sustainability approach is needed that minimizes harms and maximizes benefits across all dimensions. This requires policies and regulations to promote responsible practices, ongoing impact monitoring and research, and active local community participation. Our findings provide key insights to inform jaguar conservation and tourism management strategies in Latin America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increasing height and rotor diameter of wind turbines, bat activity monitoring within the risk area becomes more challenging. This study investigates the impact of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) on bat activity and explores acoustic bat detection via UAS as a new data collection method in the vicinity of wind turbines. We tested two types of UAS, a multicopter and a Lighter Than Air (LTA) UAS, to understand how they may affect acoustically recorded and analyzed bat activity level for three echolocation groups: Pipistrelloid, Myotini, and Nyctaloid. We hypothesized (i) that the LTA UAS will not affect bat activity levels while a multicopter, due to higher noise emission, might have a negative impact. Our results support this hypothesis, because multicopter flights have a highly significant negative impact on bat activity levels with a medium effect size, particularly for the Myotini (P < 0.001, dm = 0.54) and Nyctaloid group (P < 0.001, dn = 0.55) and a small effect size for the Pipistrelloid group (P < 0.001, dp = 0.36). In contrast, the LTA UAS had no significant effect on bat activity for each echolocation group (P > 0.05 for each group), suggesting its suitability for non-intrusive acoustic monitoring. Furthermore, we hypothesized (ii) that larger UAS propellers prevent the deterrent effect on bats. However, despite the use of larger propellers for the multicopter UAS compared to previous studies, we observed a deterrence effect for all echolocation groups. Additionally, we hypothesized that (iii) any initial deterrence or attraction effect might decrease over time. Our results did not support this hypothesis because we did not observe any habituation of bats to UAS within the 15-minute flight period. Our study highlights the potential of UAS for bat monitoring but underscores the critical importance of selecting appropriate UAS types and operating noise levels for successful surveillance efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite its prevalence in studying the causal roles of different brain circuits in cognitive processes, electrical microstimulation often results in inconsistent behavioral effects. These inconsistencies are assumed to be due to multiple mechanisms, including habituation, compensation by other brain circuits, and contralateral suppression. Considering the presence of reinforcement in most experimental paradigms, we hypothesized that interactions between reward feedback and microstimulation could contribute to inconsistencies in behavioral effects of microstimulation. To test this, we analyzed data from electrical microstimulation of the frontal eye field of male macaques during a value-based decision-making task and constructed network models to capture choice behavior. We found evidence for microstimulation-dependent adaptation in saccadic choice, such that in stimulated trials, monkeys' choices were biased toward the target in the response field of the microstimulated site (Tin). In contrast, monkeys showed a bias away from Tin in nonstimulated trials following microstimulation. Critically, this bias slowly decreased as a function of the time since the last stimulation. Moreover, microstimulation-dependent adaptation was influenced by reward outcomes in preceding trials. Despite these local effects, we found no evidence for the global effects of microstimulation on learning and sensitivity to the reward schedule. By simulating choice behavior across various network models, we found a model in which microstimulation and reward-value signals interact competitively through reward-dependent plasticity can best account for our observations. Our findings indicate a reward-dependent compensatory mechanism that enhances robustness to perturbations within the oculomotor system and could explain the inconsistent outcomes observed in previous microstimulation studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Preference tests are commonly used to assess fish behavior and cognition in several research fields. This study aimed to investigate how fish perform in a preference test involving extended habituation to the apparatus, which was expected to reduce stress. We contrasted the choice between a sector of the apparatus with natural vegetation, expected to be the preferred stimulus, and a barren sector. Initially, we demonstrated that guppies' preference for the sector with vegetation increased after a 5‐day habituation period (Experiment 1). Subsequent experiments systematically modified the testing paradigm to observe effects on the preference. Experiment 2 introduced a physical separation between sectors to facilitate discrete choices, Experiment 3 tested groups of fish, and Experiment 4 used wild guppies. Only the modification in Experiment 3 impacted preference scores: guppies tested in groups showed a higher preference for the vegetation stimulus and spent less time in the central, no‐choice sector of the testing apparatus. Overall, this study supports the importance of methodological details in preference tests and highlights the benefits of extended habituation and group testing. Researchers should consider these factors when designing experiments to evaluate cognitive abilities or behavioral preferences in fish. Tailoring testing paradigms to specific research goals can improve the reliability and comparability of results, contributing to a deeper understanding of fish behavior and welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prey animals make crucial escape decisions when confronted by predators. Previous research, predominantly employing human surrogates, has consistently shown that urban-dwelling prey exhibit greater tolerance for the approach of human beings compared to their counterparts in rural or suburban habitats. However, it is essential for urban animals to retain sensitivity to genuine predators despite their habituation to non-lethal human presence. In this study, we investigated the escape behavior of three bird species (Pica pica, Streptopelia orientalis, and Spilopelia chinensis) in response to both human and genuine cat predators. We compared the flight initiation distance (FID) and distance fled (DF) when approached by one person, one person with a cat, and two persons in urban and suburban environments. Our findings reveal that urban birds exhibit heightened tolerance (habituation) to approaching predators in urban environments. However, contrary to our expectations, urban birds showed similar FID and DF when approached by one person with a caged cat compared to one or two persons, suggesting a lack of distinction between human and cat predators or reluctance to make different escape decisions. In addition, DF was significantly influenced by the distance to refuge but did not differ between urban and suburban habitats. Our study supports the general risk-taking hypothesis, indicating similar reactions to different predators, and underscores the appropriateness of using human surrogates to study escape behaviors, even in habituated urban environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many species, olfactory abilities in females are more acute than those in males. Studies in humans show that women have lower olfactory thresholds and are better able to discriminate and identify odors than men. In mice, odorants elicit faster activation from a larger number of olfactory bulb glomeruli in females than in males. Our study explores sex differences in olfaction in Long Evans rats from a behavioral and electrophysiological perspective. Local field potentials (LFPs) in the olfactory bulb (OB) represent the coordinated activity of bulbar neurons. Olfactory gamma (65–120 Hz) and beta (15–30 Hz) oscillations have been functionally linked to odor perception. Spontaneous and odor-evoked OB LFPs were recorded from awake rats at the same time for 12 days. Odors used included urine of both sexes and monomolecular odorants characterized previously for correlation of volatility with behavior and OB oscillations. Sampling duration in a habituation context, baseline gamma and beta power, and odor-elicited beta and gamma power were analyzed. We find that females sample odorants for a shorter duration than males (just over 1-s difference). Although baseline gamma and beta power do not show significant differences between the two sexes, odor-elicited gamma and beta power in females is significantly lower than in males. Neither sampling duration nor beta and gamma power in females varied systematically with day of estrus. We further verify that variance of these behavioral and physiological measures is not different across sexes, adding to growing evidence that researchers need not be concerned about often-claimed additional variance in female subjects. NEW & NOTEWORTHY: Olfaction plays a large role in evolutionary processes. However, we know little about sex differences in olfactory bulb neurophysiology, and many scientists believe that females are more variable because of estrus. We show that female rats sniff odors for shorter durations than males and have lower power in neural oscillations related to cognition. Estrus was not related to variance in any measures. Finally, males and females show equal variance on these behavioral and physiological processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on the emergence of effects of socioeconomic inequality typically report that socioeconomic background is positively associated with early cognitive abilities. However, studies on looking behaviour in habituation tasks rarely investigate this association, although such tasks are standard in measuring cognitive abilities in infants. The current study aimed to explore the emergence and magnitude of the effects of socioeconomic background, as one aspect of socioeconomic inequality, on cognitive abilities in the first two years of life, using a dataset from a large-scale German cohort study. We modelled looking behaviour using growth curve modelling and found no significant effects at 7 months. However, we found positive effects of socioeconomic background on the initial looking time (intercept) and overall looking time at 17 months, but not on the looking decrement (slope). The results are discussed regarding the specificities of the data, as the habituation task was administered in a household setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Response Time Concealed Information Test can reveal that a person recognizes a relevant item (probe, e.g., a murder weapon) among other, irrelevant items (controls), based on slower responses to the probe compared to the controls. A previous study (Lukács, 2022, JARMAC) analyzed the data of 14 experiments and demonstrated that classification accuracy is increased by increased test length (i.e., increased number of trials included in the analysis). However, that study left the important question open whether prior practice (whose trials are not included in the analysis) influences the classification accuracy of subsequent testing (i.e., subsequent trials included in the analysis). Reanalyzing the same data from the 14 experiments (comprising 2223 individual tests), we show that different sections of the test (each with the same number of trials), such as the first and second half of each examined test, do not differ substantially in their classification accuracy. The main implications for real‐life application are that, at least up to about 600 trials, prior practice does not affect subsequent tests' results, and the number of examined relevant items or their order of presentation may be freely chosen without compromising the method's validity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about language development after late‐to‐moderate premature birth, the most significant part of prematurity worldwide. We examined minimal‐pair word‐learning skills in 18 eighteen‐month‐old healthy full‐term (mean gestational age [GA] at birth = 39.6 weeks; 7 males; 100% Caucasian) and 18 healthy late‐to‐moderate preterm infants (mean GA at birth 33.7 weeks; 11 males; 100% Caucasian). Data were collected in the local urban area of Barcelona city from May 2015 to August 2016. Toddlers first associated two pseudo‐words, forming a minimal pair based on a voice onset time distinction of the initial consonant, with two unfamiliar objects during a habituation phase. A visual choice test assessed their recognition of the two novel word‐object associations and some familiar word‐object pairs. While full‐terms successfully mapped the similar sounding pair of novel words (d = 1.57), preterms could not (d = 0.17). These results suggest that late to moderate preterm birth can hinder basic associative learning mechanisms relying on fine temporal speech features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Objectives: The auditory middle-latency responses (AMLRs) assess central sensory processing beyond the brainstem and serve as a measure of sensory gating. They have clinical relevance in the diagnosis of neurological conditions. In this study, magnitude and habituation of the AMLRs were tested for sensitivity and specificity in classifying dizzy patients with vestibular migraine (VM) and post-concussive syndrome. Methods: Twenty-three healthy individuals, 12 concussion and 26 VM patients were recruited. AMLR were recorded performing five blocks of 200 binaural click-stimulations at 60 dB sensation level with a repetition rate of 6.1 Hz. Reduction in P0, Na and Pa magnitudes between blocks was measured. Group classifications were performed through logistic and multiple regression. Results: Among healthy subjects, a consistent P0 and Na habituation can be observed. Concussed subjects show control-like Na habituation, despite a lower magnitude, while P0 habituation was negligible. VM patients showed poor habituation for all waves. Regression analyses suggest that P0 and Na better distinguish healthy subjects from neurological patients, whereas Pa best distinguishes concussion from VM patients. Conclusions: The results support that AMLR habituation can contribute to unraveling different mechanisms of dizziness due to concussion compared to VM, providing insights that can complement routine diagnostic assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) is the most frequent cause of peripheral vertigo that constitutes more than half of all occurrences of vestibular disorders. Objective: The objective of this study was to find out the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) along with vestibular rehabilitation therapy (VRT) on dizziness, anxiety, and various cardiovascular parameters. Methods: The present study will be a parallel-group single-blinded randomized controlled trial with concealed allocation. The participants will be randomized into three groups: Group A (VRT group), Group B (tDCS group), and Group C (tDCS + VRT group). The outcome variables will be the Dizziness Handicap Inventory Scale, Beck Anxiety Inventory Scale, and cardiovascular parameters. The outcome variables will be assessed at the baseline, at week 4, and a follow-up at week 6. Results: The result will be presented in the form of mean, standard deviation, median, and P value. Conclusions: The application of cerebellar tDCS along with Brandt-Daroff exercises can be seen as a potent approach to improve the symptoms of BPPV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensory habituation allows us to decrease responsiveness to repetitive or prolonged stimuli over time, making them easy to filter out and not interfere with ongoing activities. As such, habituation could be an important aspect to be evaluated within a sensory and cognitive assessment. The main aim of the present study was to validate an Italian version of the Sensory Habituation Questionnaire (S-Hab-Q), a self-report tool assessing how long an adult individual takes to adapt to daily sensory stimuli. We examined the relationship between sensory habituation and sensory sensitivity by administering the Sensory Perception Quotient questionnaire (SPQ) and tested a factor model based on a sensory modality categorization of items. In addition, given the high probability of altered sensory processing in autism, we explored the relationship between sensory habituation and autistic traits by administering the Autism Quotient questionnaire (AQ). A total of 262 participants, aged 18 to 67 years, completed the S-Hab-Q, the SPQ, and the AQ questionnaires. The results showed that, as the original version of the S-Hab-Q, the Italian version had a high internal consistency and a significant correlation with the SPQ score. A confirmatory factor analysis, based on a two-factor model (i.e., vision and hearing vs. touch, smell, and taste), showed a good fit of the S-Hab-Q data. As expected, a significant correlation between the S-Hab-Q and the AQ score was found. Interestingly, mediation analysis revealed that the S-Hab-Q score mediated the relationship between SPQ and AQ scores. Overall, the results confirm that a questionnaire assessing habituation can be a feasible tool to profile individual habituation in daily life. Moreover, they suggest that sensory habituation contributes to explaining the link between sensory sensitivity and autistic traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to learn is typically attributed to animals with brains. However, the apparently simplest form of learning, habituation, in which a steadily decreasing response is exhibited to a repeated stimulus, is found not only in animals but also in single-cell organisms and individual mammalian cells. Habituation has been codified from studies in both invertebrate and vertebrate animals as having ten characteristic hallmarks, seven of which involve a single stimulus. Here, we show by mathematical modeling that simple molecular networks, based on plausible biochemistry with common motifs of negative feedback and incoherent feedforward, can robustly exhibit all single-stimulus hallmarks. The models reveal how the hallmarks arise from underlying properties of timescale separation and reversal behavior of memory variables, and they reconcile opposing views of frequency and intensity sensitivity expressed within the neuroscience and cognitive science traditions. Our results suggest that individual cells may exhibit habituation behavior as rich as that which has been codified in multi-cellular animals with central nervous systems and that the relative simplicity of the biomolecular level may enhance our understanding of the mechanisms of learning. [Display omitted] • Habituation is a form of learning characterized by specific hallmarks • Biochemically plausible models exhibit all single-stimulus hallmarks • Timescale separation and reversal behavior underlie the hallmarks • Models reconcile opposing views from neuroscience and cognitive science Eckert et al. study mathematical models of habituation, the simplest learning behavior, in single cells. They find that biochemically plausible networks based on negative feedback or incoherent feedforward motifs satisfy all single-stimulus hallmarks of habituation, as codified in animals with brains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proust wrote vividly about grief, but he has not been recognised or studied as a philosopher of grief. It is time that he was. For a powerful and compelling philosophy of grief emerges from the pages of his magnum opus. Though philosophical work on Proust has not turned to this theory of grief, philosophers writing about grief have often drawn on Proust, both explicitly and implicitly, without an awareness of an underlying Proustian theory. This paper fills the gap by placing this philosophically informed, Proustian theory of grief before our eyes. Proust builds on contemporary discussions of habituation (habitude), the process whereby new sensations and new actions become both less salient, intrusive or demanding of our attention, and more crucial for our equilibrium and our continued short‐term functioning. Applying this to the social realm, Proust theorises love in terms of habituation to another person, and grief in terms of a sudden inapplicability or unsuitability of our habits to the world that person has left behind, followed by the painful, uneven and intermittent process of habituating to that new world. The paper explains this theory and charts its relation to some contemporary discussions of grief. Doing so places Proust back into a conversation he has already influenced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The frequent presence of hunters in hunting areas may have a negative impact on wild animals, which may disturb their welfare. Stressors may long affect individual animal species in different ways. Therefore, the study aimed to compare cortisol level in the hair of male mouflons, red deer, and wild boars harvested at the end of the stalking hunting season depending on the age and carcass mass. The cortisol level was determined using the DetectX® Cortisol ELISA Kits. Results: The concentration of cortisol in the hair of mouflons was almost six times lower than that of red deer and wild boars. Carcass mass and age researched animals did not affect cortisol levels. Conclusions: Stalking hunts most likely do not impact the welfare of big game. There is probably habituation to long-term stress in the animals studied. Mouflons have the ability to respond effectively to specific stressors and are more resistant to long-term stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Objectives: Pattern glare, associated with cortical hyperexcitability, induces visual distortions and discomfort, particularly in individuals susceptible to migraines or epilepsy. While previous research has primarily focused on transient EEG responses to patterned stimuli, this study aims to investigate how continuous presentation of pattern-glare stimuli affects neural adaptation over both fine (seconds) and coarse (entire experiment) temporal scales. Methods: EEG recordings were obtained from 40 healthy participants exposed to horizontal square-wave gratings at three spatial frequencies presented continuously for three seconds each across multiple trials. Participants' susceptibility to visual stress, headaches, and discomfort was assessed using questionnaires before and during the experiment. The experiment employed a two-by-two design to evaluate habituation (exponentially decreasing response) and sensitisation (exponentially increasing response) effects at two different time granularities. Mass univariate analysis with cluster-based permutation tests was conducted to identify significant brain response changes during the period of constant stimulation, which we call the DC-shift period. Results: Significant effects were observed during the DC-shift period, indicating sustained hyper-excitation to the medium-pattern glare stimulus. In particular, the mean/intercept analysis revealed a consistent positive-going response to the medium stimulus throughout the DC-shift period, suggesting continued neural engagement. Participants reporting higher discomfort exhibited sensitisation at fine temporal granularity and habituation at coarser temporal granularity. These effects were predominantly localised to the right posterior scalp regions. Conclusions: The study demonstrates that individuals sensitive to pattern-glare stimuli exhibit dynamic neural adaptation characterised by short-term sensitisation and long-term habituation. These findings enhance the understanding of cortical hyperexcitability mechanisms and may inform future interventions for visual-stress-related conditions, such as migraines and epilepsy. Further research is needed to explore the underlying neural processes and validate these effects in clinical populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Unilateral vestibular hypofunction (UVH) in cases of insufficient central nervous system compensation leads to chronic dizziness. A customized vestibular rehabilitation (VR) program is more beneficial than a generic set of exercises for patients with chronic UVH. The purpose of the present study is to compare a customized remotely supervised VR program with a customized unsupervised VR program in chronic UVH patients. Methods: Participants were randomly allocated into two groups (Group A and Group B) and received an individualized 6-week home-based VR program that included adaptation and habituation exercises, balance and gait training. All individuals' VR program implementation was evaluated weekly, allowing for exercise modifications. Moreover, Group A received additional remote supervision via phone communication (twice per week). The effectiveness of each VR program was evaluated using the scores of the Mini-BESTest, the Functional Gait Assessment (FGA), and the Dizziness Handicap Inventory (DHI). Results: At the 6-week assessment, participants in Group A had significantly better scores in objective and subjective evaluated parameters than those in Group B (p < 0.001). Group A also showed better compliance with the VR program. On the contrary, participants' conformity in their individualized exercises was not affected by gender, duration of symptoms, or BMI (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Our clinical study highlights the advantages of using telephone communication, with a structured design and implementation, to assist individuals in successfully following a VR protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Visual evoked potential recording has reported ambiguous results among migraineurs, thus the present study explored the association of check-size and reversal rates on the latency and amplitude of pattern reversal VEP among migraineurs. Method and material: Monocular VEP responses for both eyes were recorded in 133 migraineurs and 111 controls. Checkerboard pattern with phase reversal frequency of 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 Hz and check-size of 16 × 16, 32 × 32, 64 × 64 and 128 × 128, i.e. spatial frequency of 0.475, 1.029, 2.056 and 4.112 cycle per degree (cpd) were used to record 100 responses each. Three-minutes gap was given after change of reversal frequency to a higher rate for next cycle of 4 check-size records. Result: A linear increase in latencies was observed with decreasing check-size in both groups, but migraineurs had significantly higher latencies at a given reversal rate. Amplitudes A1 and A2 were higher among migraineurs and amplitude A2 showed an inverted 'U' shaped trend with maximum amplitude at 32 × 32 check size (1.029 cpd) in both groups, with an exaggerated response among migraineurs. Check-size 32 × 32 i.e. spatial frequency of 1.029 behaves differently than other larger or smaller check-sizes. Conclusion: Variable VEP response for different visual stimuli may be due to differential activation of respective retinocortical pathways and cortical areas. The highest amplitude at modest check-size suggests a contributory role of foveal-parafoveal fibres in migraineurs. Exaggerated physiological response to visual stimuli may be responsible for higher amplitudes and prolonged latencies among migraineurs. SUMMARY: Exaggerated physiological VEP response as higher amplitudes and prolonged latencies, among migraineurs may be due to differential activation of respective retinocortical pathways and cortical areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vain emotions are, according to Epicurus, the source of our mental disturbance. The aim of this paper is to discuss and analyze this connection by clarifying the structure of vain emotions in Epicurean philosophy. In order to achieve this, I present, first, the major lines of interpretation regarding the structure of epicurean emotions. Second, I highlight potential problems for each one of these interpretations. Third, I conclude that the existing interpretations cannot capture the whole picture regarding the epicurean structure of emotions and thus I propose an alternative reading of the latter which surpasses the problems facing the existing interpretations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the demand for realistic sensations in virtual reality (VR) environments escalates, interfaces that exploit cross-modal interactions between vision and haptics are gaining prominence. Pseudo-haptics, offering a tactile illusion without mechanical feedback devices, has emerged as a viable solution to enhance user immersion by simulating various sensations such as texture, fluid resistance, and weight. However, a potential issue in the long-term effectiveness of these illusions, particularly habituation, where the illusion diminishes after prolonged exposure, remains a concern. This study investigates whether habituation to pseudo-haptic weight illusions occurs with extended use. We conducted quantitative measurements of pseudo-haptic weight perception before and after prolonged exposure. The findings indicate a diminishing effect of pseudo-haptic weight illusion with repeated exposure, particularly among participants with high accuracy in weight perception. This study contributes important insights into the design of VR experiences, highlighting the need to consider the habituation effects when implementing pseudo-haptic illusions for weight perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Swearing, or using taboo language with the potential to offend, has been shown to improve physical performance during short and intense tasks requiring strength and power development. While consistent ergogenic effects of swearing have been observed across studies, the mechanisms by which swearing impacts physical performance are not fully clear. Swearing has been shown to modulate physiological (i.e., heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance), psychological (i.e., state disinhibition), and nociceptive (i.e., pain threshold, pain tolerance, pain perception) responses, thus making it plausible that these mechanisms allow swearing to positively impact physical performance. A variety of dosages of swearing (i.e., word used, intensity, frequency, quantity) have been reported to improve physical performance. Although habituation to the positive physical performance effects of swearing has not been explored formally through empirical research, habituation to swearing has been observed in other contexts. From a practical application standpoint, swearing represents a low-risk, effective, and inexpensive intervention that has the potential to acutely improve physical performance although the taboo nature of swearing may limit its utility in real-world situations. The purpose of the following review is to provide an overview of available evidence on swearing and physical performance and discuss likely underlying mechanisms. Exploration of different swearing approaches and habituation will also be highlighted and suggestions for future research will be discussed, to more comprehensively understand if swearing can be strategically used for performance enhancement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Changes in response patterns of biological stress systems, including responses of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis to repeated stress, can promote the development and progression of chronic diseases via changes in downstream inflammatory processes. The aim of this project is thus to investigate, whether habituation of biological stress system activity including responses of the inflammatory system can be modified. Aiming to test for possible paths of action, a randomized controlled study with two intervention programs designed to manipulate cognitive coping strategies will be carried out. By increasing either ruminative or self-compassionate thoughts among healthy young adults, the intervention programs are expected to affect the regulation of occurring emotions as expressed by the responsiveness of biological systems during repeated stress exposure. Methods: In this study, a total of 120 healthy adults will complete the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) on two consecutive days. Immediately after the first stress induction, participants will be randomly assigned to two experimental conditions designed to manipulate cognitive coping strategies (rumination vs. self-compassion) or a control condition. Measures of HPA axis (salivary cortisol) and autonomic activity (salivary alpha amylase, heart rate, heart rate variability) as well as inflammatory markers (plasma interleukin(IL)-6, expression rates of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine genes) will be repeatedly assessed throughout the experimental sessions. Response and habituation indices of these measures will be calculated and compared between the experimental conditions and the control condition. Discussion: The results should provide insight into whether modifying response patterns of biological stress systems could reverse a significant biological mechanism in the development of stress-related diseases. Trial registration: German Clinical Trials Register (DKRS), DRKS00034790. Registered on August 12, 2024, https://www.drks.de/DRKS00034790. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This scoping review explores the existing literature related to post-pandemic face-to-face learning environments for undergraduate students following their participation in virtual classes during the Covid-19 pandemic. The secondary objectives are focused to identify the cognitive; emotional, or communicative demands that characterize students; changes in pedagogical strategies; and primary recommendations regarding post-pandemic face-to-face education in the context of Covid-19. Introduction: The global emergency created by the presence of COVID-19 has led to significant change in the daily lives of people worldwide, ranging from lockdowns to the proliferation of virtual channels for social interaction and learning. Interest in its effects remains relevant in various fields including social, economic, health, technological, and educational studies. The transition back to face-to-face studies in university settings requires new adjustment processes for both students and teachers, necessitating pedagogical transformations and addressing cognitive, emotional, communicative, and habituation demands. Studies on the return to face-to-face studies in university settings are relatively scarce and warrant in-depth research. Inclusion criteria: This review will include studies completed and published in calendar years 2022 and 2024 that involve post-pandemic face-to-face learning environments for undergraduate students from any geographical area. Methodology: This scoping review will follow the JBI methodology for conducting scoping reviews. The following databases will be used: Academic Search Complete, Inter-American Development Bank, CLACSO, and The UNESCO Institute for Higher Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (IESALC), Dimensions, DOAB, DOAJ, ERIC, LILACS, Psicodoc, Redalyc, Redib, Scielo, Scopus, Dialnet, Web Of Science, Latindex, Google Scholar, SocArXiv. The search will aim to locate publications without language restrictions from any geographic location, including peer-reviewed articles, grey literature, preprints, technical notes, and policy reports. Three independent reviewers will screen, retrieve and review full-text studies and extract data. Consensus will be sought in the event of disagreement. The search results will be presented in the PRISMA-ScR flowchart. A narrative summary will also be included (Tricco AC 2018). Trial registration: Registration of systematic reviews: Open Science Framework (https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/6P9QB) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Pavlovian fear conditioning is an experimental paradigm used to study the acquisition and extinction of fear responses and the various aspects of fear and anxiety. We developed a virtual reality (VR) version of this paradigm to leverage the benefits of virtual reality, such as ecological validity, standardization, safety, and therapeutic applications. Our objective was to create an open-source and immersive environment for studying fear-related responses using Unity Engine 3D and the Oculus Rift device. Methods: In this virtual environment, the participants encountered a monster screaming at 100 dB approaching them as the fear-inducing stimulus (unconditioned stimulus or US). Our protocol included three sessions: habituation, acquisition, and extinction, with two stimuli associated with different doors (blue vs. red). The blue door (CS+) was linked to the US, while the red door (CS−) was the control. We tested this VR paradigm on 84 young participants, recording their skin conductance response (SCRs) and fear stimulus ratings (FSRs) on a 10-point Likert scale. Results: The findings showed significantly higher SCRs and FSRs for CS+ as compared to CS− during the acquisition phase and higher SCRs and FSRs for CS+ during the acquisition phase as compared to the habituation and extinction sessions. Discussion and conclusions: These results supported the reliability of the protocol for studying fear and anxiety-related conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is considerable evidence documenting associations between tobacco smoking, including initiation, maintenance, and relapse of addiction, with diminished cardiovascular responses to acute psychological stress. However, less is known about how smokers respond to repeated stress across time. The current study examined patterns of cardiovascular reactivity and adaptation to recurrent stress among 24‐h abstinence smokers, smokers who continued to smoke at their normal rate, and non‐smokers. Smokers were randomly assigned to one of two groups; ad libitum (n = 42), or 24 h abstinence (n = 61); non‐smokers (n = 43) provided comparative referencing. Across the two laboratory sessions, participants (n = 149) were asked to complete a modified version of the trier social stress test, while monitoring systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate activity. Results showed that while non‐smokers had elevated cardiovascular reactivity to begin with, they showed a greater capacity to habituate to recurrent stress across sessions. The data also suggest that smokers displayed lower cardiovascular reactivity to acute psychological stress and showed little habituation to repeated stress. In adjusted models, smokers exhibited less systolic blood pressure habituation to stress. This response profile in smokers may be a potential mechanism that leads to further cardiotoxic effects on health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) is a prevalent chronic inflammatory condition affecting the nose and paranasal sinuses, posing a significant socio‐economic impact with substantial challenges in management. Biologics targeting type 2 inflammation such as dupilumab, have emerged as promising options. This study addresses a critical knowledge gap by comprehensively evaluating the 3‐year impact of sustained dupilumab therapy in CRSwNP. Methods: A multicentric, retrospective collection of real‐world data from five tertiary referral centers in Germany was conducted, enrolling 150 adult patients. The study investigated patient‐reported outcomes, disease‐specific indices and clinical measures, focusing on therapeutic response persistence, adverse events, and factors influencing treatment continuity. Results: Results indicate significant improvements in clinical parameters from baseline (n = 150) with sustained effectiveness after 36 months (n = 138) as indicated in mean score ± standard deviation. Dupilumab treatment significantly improved overall disease‐related impairment (VAS score: 7.5 ± 2.5 to 1.6 ± 1.3) and rhinosinusitis symptoms (SNOT‐22: 59.4 ± 19.4 to 18.0 ± 15.0). Nasal Polyp Scores (NPS) decreased (5.3 ± 1.8 to 0.7 ± 1.1), and olfactory function improved (3.2 ± 2.5 to 8.4 ± 2.8), with three out of four patients achieving normosmia or hyposmia after 36 months. An "Excellent" treatment response according to EUFOREA23 criteria was observed in 76.5% of patients after 36 months. Sixteen patients discontinued Dupilumab, 12 permanently. Adverse events totaled 69 in 48 patients, commonly self‐limiting. Conclusion: The study highlights the enduring effectiveness and lack of habituation to dupilumab after a sustained therapy of 3 years, providing valuable insights into its long‐term therapeutic implications for CRSwNP patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated the effects of habituation and electro-ejaculation techniques on semen quality in merino-type rams in South Africa, aiming to refine the electro-ejaculation method to improve semen quality. Parameters assessed included semen volume, sperm motility, sperm viability, sperm concentration, sperm viscosity, sperm consistency, and sperm abnormalities. Forty mature (six-to eighttooth) merino-type rams, approximately two and a half to four years old, were randomly assigned to four groups: habituated with a 3-second rest (H3) (n = 10), non-habituated with a 3-second rest (N3) (n = 10), habituated with a 10-second rest (H10) (n = 10), and non-habituated with a 10-second rest (N10) (n = 10). Each group underwent a two-week habituation period to human presence before electroejaculation using a commercial device. Analysed semen samples showed no significant differences in semen volume (0.93-1.28 mL), sperm motility (75.2%-83.1%), sperm viability (73.1%-85.5%), sperm concentration score (3.45-3.83), sperm viscosity score (3.5-4.00), or sperm consistency score (3.5-4.0). However, the H3 group had a higher percentage of sperm abnormalities (12.3%) compared to the N3 (6.11%) and H10 (6.7%) groups, indicating that a shorter rest interval may negatively impact semen quality. The study concludes that extending the rest interval to ten seconds can enhance semen parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study aims to examine how inter‐Korean events influence South Korean public opinion on unification. It seeks to understand the impact of various political events, including South‐North contacts and North Korean nuclear provocations, on South Koreans' attitudes towards unification. Methods: Using annual survey data from the Institute for Peace and Unification Studies at Seoul National University (IPUS), this study creates a novel time‐series dataset spanning from 2007 to 2021. We test how each of the inter‐Korean political events affects support for unification and how key individual dispositions moderate the level of support. Results: The empirical findings reveal that inter‐Korean summits and family reunions positively affect unification sentiment, with family reunions showing surprisingly stronger impacts than inter‐Korean summits. Regarding North Korea's provocations, nuclear tests negatively influence public support for unification, while ballistic missile launches do not significantly impact unification sentiment, likely due to public habituation. Conclusion: This study contributes to existing literature by providing new empirical insights into the relationship between inter‐Korean political events and public opinion. The findings suggest that policymakers should focus on strategic short‐term initiatives, particularly increasing inter‐Korean contacts, to foster long‐term positive sentiment towards unification. However, it's important to note that individual variables become more influential in shaping public opinion over the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Habituation is a strategy that involves several physiological and behavioural response mechanisms to make individuals less reactive to recurrent stimuli and cope with the challenges posed by a stressor. In order to better understand fish stress resilience and adaptive capability, it is important to assess adaptation and habituation to main aquaculture stressors, such as high stocking densities. With that purpose, in this study, a confinement stress test was designed and validated by evaluating stress response in gilthead sea bream and European sea bass. This test was further employed to explore behavioural parameters in gilthead sea bream with a different background in stocking density. Although animals reared at higher densities exhibited impaired growth performance, they also displayed physiological and behavioural adaptation strategies to partly overcome the negative effects of high-density environments. Interestingly, behavioural monitoring evidenced signs of habituation to high-density conditions in the same group of animals. Thus, evaluating habituation can help to ensure that fish are within acceptable welfare standards while optimizing industry profitability. A confinement stress test with 75% tank space reduction and behavioural monitoring through tri-axial accelerometers externally attached to the operculum was designed. This procedure was validated by demonstrating the less pronounced stress response in gilthead sea bream than in European sea bass (950–1200 g). Our study aimed to assess habituation to high stocking densities with such procedure in gilthead sea bream. Animals (420–450 g) were reared (June–August) in a flow-through system at two stocking densities (CTRL: 10–15 kg/m3; HD: 18–24 kg/m3), with natural photoperiod and temperature (21–29 °C), and oxygen levels at 5.2–4.2 (CTRL) and 4.2–3.2 ppm (HD). At the end, blood and muscle were sampled for haematology and transcriptomic analyses, and external tissue damage was assessed by image-based scoring. Four days later, fish underwent a 45 min confinement stress test over two consecutive days. HD fish showed reduced feed intake, growth rates and haematopoietic activity. Muscle transcriptome changes indicated a shift from systemic to local growth regulation and a primed muscle regeneration over protein accretion in HD animals with slight external injuries. After stress testing, HD fish exhibited a decreased recovery time in activity and respiration rates, which was shorter after a second stressor exposure, confirming habituation to high densities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) are the most numerous and widespread gorilla subspecies, they have remained relatively unstudied. International tourism has been initiated at several sites in the Congo Basin, which necessitates habituation of gorillas to human presence. However, habituation has proven difficult due to several obstacles, including relatively low population densities, small group sizes, and thick understory vegetation. In this article, we propose refinements to current approaches to habituating western lowland gorillas that maximize safety and emphasize adaptive responses based on empirical evidence. In addition to reviewing published reports, our approach is informed by the recent habituation of the Mététélé group in the Djéké Triangle, an area that was recently included in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in Republic of Congo. We evaluate progress in habituation according to time spent in the presence of the gorillas and their reactions to humans. The Mététélé group is composed of 14 individuals and has a home range that overlaps with two habituated gorilla groups. Early in the habituation process, we discovered that three of Mététélé's group members were individuals who had previously been habituated as members of other groups. The presence of these individuals expedited the habituation process. Familiarity with humans may have also reduced aggressive responses during the habituation process. The overall result is a refined step-by-step approach to the habituation of western lowland gorillas that includes procedures and assessments to meet best-practice guidelines and ensure the wellbeing of both gorillas and humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atomic magnetometer (AM) is utilized to non-invasively detect event-related magnetic fields (ERMFs) evoked by visual stimuli in rats. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between N2-like amplitude and visual attention. To achieve this, we combined the AM with a visual stimulation system and employed the passive single-stimulus paradigm. By measuring the ERMFs at various inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs) with a sensitivity of 20 fT/ Hz , we analyzed the effects of the ISI and the 'habituation' resulting from repeated stimuli on the N2-like amplitude. Our method serves as a valuable reference for studying the passive single-stimulus paradigm and the time course of mammalian attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infant research often struggles with selective samples, especially when focusing on behavioural measures, such as those drawn from habituation tasks. However, selectivity may threaten the generalizability and interpretation of results, which is why the current study investigates attrition in a habituation task administered in a household setting in 7‐month‐old infants. We used a large‐scale German dataset, focusing on the children's socioeconomic background, and investigated two aspects of attrition, namely, participation and task completion. The findings suggest significant effects of the children's socioeconomic background on attrition: Maternal education, parental occupation, household income and household language (German vs. other) were positively related to participation and task completion. The analyses indicate that multiple barriers may prevent parents from lower socioeconomic backgrounds from letting their children participate. The study concludes with a critical discussion of possible mechanisms of selectivity in behavioural measures as well as the household setting, in which the data were collected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Positive human–animal interactions (HAIs) can be intrinsically rewarding and facilitate positive human–animal relationships. However, HAI paradigms vary across studies, and the influence of different interaction paradigms on the animal's response has been overlooked. We compared the behavioural responses of pigs (n = 28) individually tested with two types of gentle tactile interactions with a familiar human: 'free form (FF)' where the pig could voluntarily approach and interact as they normally would, and 'imposed contact (IC)' where the human imposed tactile contact on the pig according to a standardised protocol. Pigs did not differ in their level of engagement with the human between the two types of interactions. However, they differed in their behaviour as they explored the pen more during the FF test, while they emitted more low-pitched vocalisations (grunts) during the IC test. These differences can likely be imputed to the IC test differing to the pigs' habituation to human contact, which could have evoked greater attention to the human or triggered frustration due to violation of expectation. These findings highlight the influence of the predictability of the interaction or level of agency provided to the animal in HAI tests and relation to their previous experience of interacting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prey face a major challenge in balancing predator avoidance with other essential activities. In environments with high risk, prey may exhibit neophobia (fear of novelty) due to the increased likelihood of novel stimuli being dangerous. The zebrafish, Danio rerio, is an established model organism for many scientific studies. Although spatial and object neophobia in zebrafish have received previous attention, little is known about the role of background risk in inducing neophobia in zebrafish. Here, we present two experiments using zebrafish to explore whether background predation risk can induce anxiety-like behaviour in a novel environment and neophobic responses when exposed to a novel odour. Over five days, we repeatedly exposed zebrafish to either high background risk in the form of chemical alarm cues (i.e., injured conspecific cues that indicate a predator attack) or a low-risk water control stimulus. In Experiment 1, when tested in a novel tank, zebrafish exposed to high predation risk displayed anxiety-like responses (reduced activity and increased bottom time spent) compared to their low-risk counterparts. Moreover, high-risk individuals showed reduced intra-session habituation to the novel tank compared to low-risk individuals. In Experiment 2, high-risk individuals exhibited fear responses toward a novel odour, unlike low-risk individuals. These results reveal that short-term repeated exposures to high risk can induce anxiety-like behaviour and predator odour neophobia in zebrafish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our research focuses on semen collection from 42 African penguin males, grouped by age, habituation levels, and reproductive season timing. We assess behavioral and physiological responses to dorso-abdominal massage, evaluating species-specific seminal traits using conventional and advanced methods. Positive behavioral responses corresponded with successful semen collection. Young and human-reared males exhibited more favorable behaviors, and samples containing spermatozoa were more likely collected during the reproductive season. Age did not influence sample collectability or spermatozoa presence, though mature males produced higher semen volumes. Young males exhibited more sperm morphological abnormalities, especially outside the breeding season. Sperm concentration and number per ejaculate showed no significant differences across age or seasonal groups. Young males had higher motile and progressive sperm percentages, while mature males had more static sperm. Additionally, percentages of live sperm and intact acrosomes were higher in mature males. Young males and samples from non-reproductive season presented more dead sperm with damaged acrosomes. Plasma membrane integrity positively correlated with age for live sperm and negatively for dying sperm. This research demonstrates the feasibility of semen collection from African penguins regardless of habituation level, fills the knowledge gap by describing sperm morphological abnormalities, and provides insights into using flow cytometry in Sphenisciformes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habituation--a phenomenon in which a dynamical system exhibits a diminishing response to repeated stimulations that eventually recovers when the stimulus is withheld--is universally observed in living systems from animals to unicellular organisms. Despite its prevalence, generic mechanisms for this fundamental form of learning remain poorly defined. Drawing inspiration from prior work on systems that respond adaptively to step inputs, we study habituation from a nonlinear dynamics perspective. This approach enables us to formalize classical hallmarks of habituation that have been experimentally identified in diverse organisms and stimulus scenarios. We use this framework to investigate distinct dynamical circuits capable of habituation. In particular, we show that driven linear dynamics of a memory variable with static nonlinearities acting at the input and output can implement numerous hallmarks in a mathematically interpretable manner. This work establishes a foundation for understanding the dynamical substrates of this primitive learning behavior and offers a blueprint for the identification of habituating circuits in biological systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well known that dogs are capable of following human verbal instructions. However, very little is known about the equivalent ability in cats. In this study, we used a switched stimuli task to examine whether cats rapidly form picture-word association, which is a fundamental ability for word learning. We presented cats with two meaningless picture-word combinations, in the habituation phase. Then, on half of the trials we switched the combination (switched condition), but the other half of the trials remained as before (non-switched condition). If cats rapidly form picture-word association, they were expected to look at the monitor for longer in the switched condition, reflecting detection of the change. We used human speech as stimuli in Exp.1, and mechanical sounds (electronic sounds) in Exp.2. Cats expressed detection of the switched combination in Exp.1, where human speech and objects were paired. However, in Exp.2 where non-social sounds and objects were paired, there was no statistical difference between switched and non-switched conditions, although there was a main effect of condition when the data from the two experiments were pooled. These results demonstrate that cats can rapidly form picture-word association. Further research should investigate whether domestication has played a role in this ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habituation refers to the physiological adaptation to recurrent stressors, which can be measured by cortisol levels, and is considered a central mechanism in reducing allostatic load. Resilience, a potential factor influencing stress reduction, is the focus of this study. Specifically, the study aims to investigate the impact of resilience, as assessed by the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS), on habituation. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) was used as the recurrent stressor, and it was administered to each of the 56 subjects at 4 consecutive measurements. To assess habituation, various physiological parameters including the area under the curve with respect to the ground (AUCg) and with respect to the increase (AUCi), cortisol peak, slope from baseline to peak, and recovery were calculated. Mixed linear models were employed to examine the differences in the influence of resilience on habituation across the different time points. The findings indicate that the influence of resilience significantly varies from the first to the fourth measurement time point for AUCg (p =.048), while no significant differences were observed for the other cortisol parameters. The effects plot suggests that individuals with higher levels of resilience exhibit lower AUCg values throughout the measurements. These findings provide initial evidence supporting resilience as a predictor of cortisol habituation. However, future studies should also consider dynamic resilience models, utilizing longitudinally assessed resilience as a predictor for habituation, to explore whether resilience acts as a determinant of habituation or if habituation itself constitutes a resilience mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Migraine is a frequent incapacitating neurovascular illness characterized by severe headache bouts. Individuals suffering from migraine appear to process auditory and visual information differently from those without migraine. The visual-evoked potential (VEP) is a commonly used standardized test to measure excitability in the occipital cortex. Patients with migraine exhibit amplification rather than habituation of stimulus-induced brain responses, between attacks. Our objective is to compare the amplitude of P100 and the latencies of N75, P100, and N145 (N and P represent negative and positive peaks, respectively, with average latency being subscripted with the alphabet) in the fourth block between migraine patients and controls and to determine the various clinical factors associated with the P100 mean amplitude and latency differences between the first and the fourth block in migraine patients. Materials and Methods: The study compared 20 migraine patients (with or without aura) and 20 apparently healthy subjects with no history of migraines or secondary headaches, focusing on the habituation of the VEP. Four blocks of 200 responses were recorded during the headache-free period, and the latencies and amplitudes of N75, P100, and N145 components were analyzed. Results: There was a statistically significant (P < 0.05) decrement in the P100 amplitude in the fourth block when compared to the first block in both eyes in the controls as well as migraine patients. In addition, there was no statistically significant difference between controls and migraine sufferers in the P100 amplitude of the fourth block in either eye. The N145 latency in the fourth block was shorter in both eyes in migraine patients compared to controls (P < 0.05). The mean P100 amplitude difference between the first and fourth block correlated negatively with age and positively with headache frequency, while there was a moderate negative correlation with headache duration. The mean P100 latency difference between the first and fourth block correlated positively with age and negatively with headache frequency, while there was a moderate positive correlation with headache duration. Conclusion: In our study, VEP habituation was not lacking in migraine patients which means that habituation of the P100 wave was noted in migraineurs. The VEP reveals neurological changes due to ischemia injury or neurotransmitter imbalances. Migraine alters cortical excitability, but it is unclear if these changes are due to altered excitatory connections, damaged inhibitory networks or subcortical pre-activation. Our findings suggest that at least during the interictal period, lack of habituation cannot be employed as a consistent neurophysiological marker of migraine across laboratories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: One of the main concerns of veterinarians and researchers involved in animal research work is the improvement of experimental procedures to minimize discomfort to the animal. In the handling of experimental pigs, one of the challenges is immobilization, since due to their size, it is difficult and can cause stress to the animals. Immobilization using a restraint sling is a safe method for the animal and relatively simple for the operators. For this reason, the objective of this study was to evaluate the stress of pigs immobilized with a sling by quantifying salivary cortisol levels. We found that salivary cortisol levels did not increase when pigs were lifted and briefly restrained in the sling, even though some pigs (especially hybrids) showed apparent signs of stress. The lack of correlation between such apparent stress and salivary cortisol levels could be because the vocalizations and movements were not really signs of stress, but simply a way of releasing discomfort, learned in the process of socialization and habituation. In light of this unexpected conclusion, further studies collecting other physiological and behavioral data are needed to clarify what actually happens when pigs are restrained in a sling. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the potential stress developed in farm hybrid pigs and miniature laboratory pigs briefly restrained in a sling, by measuring salivary cortisol levels. The study was performed in 20 healthy pigs grouped into three groups: group HYB-F: hybrid female pigs (n = 12), housed at the CREBA facility (Lleida, Spain); group MIN-F: Specipig® miniature female pigs (n = 4), housed at the CREBA facility; group MIN-M: Specipig® miniature male pigs (n = 4), housed at the Almirall facility (Barcelona, Spain). Upon arrival, the animals were enrolled in a social habituation and training program, which included habituation to a restraint sling. The sling was a stainless steel structure with a canvas hammock which had four openings for placing the animal's feet. The assessment of stress levels in the sling was carried out by measuring cortisol levels in saliva samples. Five saliva samples were collected from each animal over 4 days: Sample 1 (basal sample): taken after animals perceived the presence of the technicians in the pen; Sample 2: taken after animals saw the sling in the pen; Sample 3: taken when animals were in the sling; Sample 4: taken 1 min after the previous one; Sample 5: taken after animals were released back on the floor. In group HYB-F, five animals (5/12) showed strong resistance and could not be restrained in the sling on at least one day. All animals in the groups of miniature pigs could be restrained on all the days. Within each group, the manipulation phase did not affect salivary cortisol levels. Likewise, salivary cortisol levels did not change significantly across days in either group. In conclusion, salivary cortisol levels did not increase when pigs were lifted and briefly restrained in the sling, even though some of them (in particular, the hybrid pigs) showed apparent signs of stress. The lack of correlation between such apparent stress and salivary cortisol levels might be because the vocalizations and movements were not really signs of stress, but simply a way of releasing discomfort, learned in the process of socialization and habituation. In light of this unexpected conclusion, further studies are needed to collect other physiological and behavioral data to clarify what actually happens when pigs are restrained in a sling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Tinnitus can be distressing, and it affects the quality of life (QoL) through psychological and cognitive impairments. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and notched sound therapy (NST) are tinnitus management approaches aiming to reduce symptoms and improve QoL via two different mechanisms. The CBT attains the cognitive principle, whereas the NST initiates tinnitus habituation. Objective To evaluate the effect of CBT and NST and compare their results in the management of chronic subjective tinnitus. Methods The present prospective study involved 64 adults with normal hearing and chronic subjective tinnitus. They were subjected to history taking, basic audiological evaluation, and extended high-frequency audiometry at 10 and 12.5 kHz. The participants were divided into two equal groups, the first treated with CBT and the second treated with NST. The psychoacoustic measures of tinnitus and the Arabic Questionnaire for Tinnitus Reaction (Arabic-QTR) were used to monitor the outcomes of both therapies. Results Both groups showed significant reduction in tinnitus severity according to the Arabic-QTR and tinnitus loudness matching. Improvement in the Arabic-QTR was better in the CBT group, while tinnitus loudness improvement was better in the NST group. Conclusion Both CBT and NST are effective in the management of chronic subjective tinnitus. In a comparison of the effect of the two therapies, CBT was found to be more effective in decreasing tinnitus-related distress, whereas SNT was found to be more helpful in reducing tinnitus loudness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Motor unit (MU) activation during maximal contractions is lower in children compared with adults. Among adults, discrete MU activation differs, depending on the rate of contraction. We investigated the effect of contraction rate on discrete MU activation in boys and men. Methods: Following a habituation session, 14 boys and 20 men completed two experimental sessions for knee extension and wrist flexion, in random order. Maximal voluntary isometric torque (MVIC) was determined before completing trapezoidal isometric contractions (70%MVIC) at low (10%MVIC/s) and high (35%MVIC/s) contraction rates. Surface electromyography was captured from the vastus lateralis (VL) and flexor carpi radialis (FCR) and decomposed into individual MU action potential (MUAP) trains. Results: In both groups and muscles, the initial MU firing rate (MUFR) was greater (p < 0.05) at high compared with low contraction rates. The increase in initial MUFR at the fast contraction in the VL was greater in men than boys (p < 0.05). Mean MUFR was significantly lower during fast contractions only in the FCR (p < 0.05). In both groups and muscles, the rate of decay of MUFR with increasing MUAP amplitude was less steep (p < 0.05) during fast compared with slow contractions. Conclusion: In both groups and muscles, initial MUFRs, as well as MUFRs of large MUs were higher during fast compared with slow contractions. However, in the VL, the increase in initial MUFR was greater in men compared with boys. This suggests that in large muscles, men may rely more on increasing MUFR to generate torque at faster rates compared with boys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Pain habituation is not a sensitive marker for central sensitization across a variety of patients with chronic pain. • Patients show prolonged latencies of contact-heat evoked potential and sympathetic skin response compared to healthy controls. • Prolonged latencies potentially reflect a compensatory inhibitory tone within the nociceptive system in chronic pain patients. The present study aimed to investigate whether subjective and objective measures of pain habituation can be used as potential markers for central sensitization across various chronic pain patients. Two blocks of contact-heat stimuli were applied to a non-painful area in 93 chronic pain patients (low back pain, neuropathic pain, and complex regional pain syndrome) and 60 healthy controls (HC). Habituation of pain ratings, contact-heat evoked potentials (CHEP), and sympathetic skin responses (SSR) was measured. There was no significant difference in any measure of pain habituation between patients and HC. Even patients with apparent clinical signs of central sensitization showed no reduced pain habituation. However, prolonged baseline CHEP and SSR latencies (stimulation block 1) were found in patients compared to HC (CHEP: Δ-latency = 23 ms, p = 0.012; SSR: Δ-latency = 100 ms, p = 0.022). Given the performed multimodal neurophysiological testing protocol, we provide evidence indicating that pain habituation may be preserved in patients with chronic pain and thereby be of limited use as a sensitive marker for central sensitization. These results are discussed within the framework of the complex interactions between pro- and antinociceptive mechanism as well as methodological issues. The prolonged latencies of CHEP and SSR after stimulation in non-painful areas may indicate subclinical changes in the integrity of thermo-nociceptive afferents, or a shift towards antinociceptive activity. This shift could potentially affect the relay of ascending signals. Our findings challenge the prevailing views in the literature and may encourage further investigations into the peripheral and central components of pain habituation, using advanced multimodal neurophysiological techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]